Liberal Fascism: The Secret History of the American Left, From Mussolini to the Politics of Meaning

succeeded in bringing about 'by force of the State the most compact and unified organization of capitalists and laborers into two camps which the world has ever seen.'⁴⁴

The key concept for rationalizing progressive utopianism was 'experimentation,' justified in the language of Nietzschean authenticity, Darwinian evolution, and Hegelian historicism and explained in the argot of William James's pragmatism. Scientific knowledge advanced by trial and error. Human evolution advanced by trial and error. History, according to Hegel, progressed through the interplay of thesis and antithesis. These experiments were the same process on a vast scale. So what if Mussolini cracked skulls or Lenin lined up dissident socialists? The progressives believed they were participating in a process of ascendance to a more modern, more 'evolved' way of organizing society, replete with modern machines, modern medicine, modern politics. In a distinctly American way, Wilson was as much a pioneer of this movement as Mussolini. A devoted Hegelian — he even invoked Hegel in a love letter to his wife — Wilson believed that history was a scientific, unfolding process. Darwinism was the perfect complement to such thinking because it seemed to confirm that the 'laws' of history were reflected in our natural surroundings. 'In our own day,' Wilson wrote while still a political scientist, 'whenever we discuss the structure or development of a thing...we consciously or unconsciously follow Mr. Darwin.'⁴⁵

Wilson won the election of 1912 in an electoral college landslide, but with only 42 percent of the popular vote. He immediately set about to convert the Democratic Party into a progressive party and, in turn, make it the engine for a transformation of America. In January 1913 he vowed to 'pick out progressives and only progressives' for his administration. 'No one,' he proclaimed in his inaugural address, 'can mistake the purpose for which the Nation now seeks to use the Democratic Party...I summon all honest men, all patriotic, all forward-looking men, to my side. I will not fail them, if they will but counsel and sustain me!' But he warned elsewhere, 'If you are not a progressive...you better look out.'⁴⁶

Without the sorts of mandates or national emergencies other liberal presidents enjoyed, Wilson's considerable legislative success is largely attributable to intense party discipline. In an unprecedented move, he kept Congress in continual session for a year and a half, something even Lincoln hadn't done during the Civil War. Sounding every bit the Crolyite, he converted almost completely to the New Nationalism he had recently denounced, claiming he wanted no 'antagonism between business and government.'⁴⁷ In terms of domestic policy, Wilson was successful in winning the support of progressives in all parties. But he failed to win over Roosevelt's followers when it came to foreign policy. Despite imperialist excursions throughout the Americas, Wilson was deemed too soft. Senator Albert Beveridge, who had led the progressives to their greatest legislative successes in the Senate, denounced Wilson for refusing to send troops to defend American interests in China or install a strongman in Mexico. Increasingly, the core of the Progressive Party became almost entirely devoted to 'preparedness' — shorthand for a big military buildup and imperial assertiveness.

The outbreak of war in Europe in 1914 distracted Wilson and the country from domestic concerns. It also proved a boon to the American economy, cutting off the flow of cheap immigrant labor and increasing the demand for American exports — something to keep in mind the next time someone tells you that the Wilson era proves progressive policies and prosperity go hand in hand.

Despite Wilson's promise to keep us out of it, America entered the war in 1917. In hindsight, this was probably a misguided, albeit foregone, intervention. But the complaint that the war wasn't in America's interests misses the point. Wilson boasted as much time and again. 'There is not a single selfish element, so far as I can see, in the cause we are fighting for,' he declared. Wilson was a humble servant of the Lord, and therefore selfishness could not enter into it.⁴⁸

Even for ostensibly secular progressives the war served as a divine call to arms. They were desperate to get their hands on the levers of power and use the war to reshape society. The capital was so thick with would-be social engineers during the war that, as one writer observed, 'the Cosmos Club was little better than a faculty meeting of all the universities.'⁴⁹ Progressive businessmen were just as eager, opting to work for the president for next to nothing — hence the phrase 'dollar-a-year men.' Of course, they were compensated in other ways, as we shall see.

WILSON'S FASCIST POLICE STATE

Today we unreflectively associate fascism with militarism. But it should be remembered that fascism was militaristic because militarism was 'progressive' at the beginning of the twentieth century. Across the intellectual landscape, technocrats and poets alike saw the military as the best model for organizing and mobilizing society. Mussolini's 'Battle of the Grains' and similar campaigns were publicized on both sides of the Atlantic as the enlightened application of James's doctrine of the 'moral equivalent of war.' There was a deep irony to America's war aim to crush 'Prussian militarism,' given that it was Prussian militarism which had inspired so many of the war's American cheerleaders in the first place. The idea that war was the source of moral values had been pioneered by German intellectuals in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and the influence of these intellectuals on the American mind was enormous. When America entered the war in 1917, progressive intellectuals, versed in the same doctrines and philosophies popular on the European continent, leaped at the opportunity to remake society through the discipline of the sword.

It is true that some progressives thought World War I was not well-advised on the merits, and there were a few progressives — Robert La Follette, for example — who were decidedly opposed (though La Follette was no pacifist, having supported earlier progressive military adventures). But most supported the war enthusiastically, even fanatically (the same goes for a great many American Socialists). And even those who were ambivalent about the war in Europe were giddy about what John Dewey called the 'social possibilities of war.' Dewey was the New Republic's in-house philosopher during the lead-up to the war, and he ridiculed self- described pacifists who couldn't recognize the 'immense impetus to reorganization afforded by this war.' One group that did recognize the social possibilities of war were the early feminists who, in the words of Harriot Stanton Blatch, looked forward to new economic opportunities for women as 'the usual, and happy, accompaniment of war.' Richard Ely, a fervent believer in 'industrial armies,' was a zealous believer in the draft: 'The moral effect of taking boys off street corners and out of saloons and drilling them is excellent, and the economic effects are likewise beneficial.' Wilson clearly saw things along the same lines. 'I am an advocate of peace,' he began one typical declaration, 'but there are some splendid things that come to a nation through the discipline of war.' Hitler couldn't have agreed more. As he told Joseph Goebbels, 'The war...made possible for us the solution of a whole series of problems that could never have been solved in normal times.'⁵⁰

We should not forget how the demands of war fed the arguments for socialism. Dewey was giddy that the war might force Americans 'to give up much of our economic freedom...We shall have to lay by our good-natured individualism and march in step.' If the war went well, it would constrain 'the individualistic tradition' and convince Americans of 'the supremacy of public need over private possessions.' Another progressive put it more succinctly: 'Laissez-faire is dead. Long live social control.'⁵¹

Croly's New Republic was relentless in its push for war. In the magazine's very first editorial, written by Croly, the editors expressed their hope that war 'should bring with it a political and economic organization better able to redeem its obligations at home.' Two years later Croly again expressed his hope that America's entry into the war would provide 'the tonic of a serious moral adventure.' A week before America joined the war, Walter Lippmann (who would later write much of Wilson's Fourteen Points) promised that hostilities would bring out a 'transvaluation of values as radical as anything in the history of intellect.' This was a transparent invocation of Nietzsche's call for overturning all traditional morality. Not coincidentally, Lippmann was a protege of William James's, and his call to use war to smash the old order illustrates how similar Nietzscheans and American pragmatists were in their conclusions and, often, their principles. Indeed, Lippmann was sounding the pragmatist's trumpet when he declared that our understanding of such ideas as democracy, liberty, and equality would have to be rethought from their foundations 'as fearlessly as religious dogmas were in the nineteenth century.'⁵²

Meanwhile, socialist editors and journalists — including many from the Masses, the most audacious of the radical journals that Wilson tried to ban — rushed to get a paycheck from Wilson's propaganda ministry. Artists such as Charles Dana Gibson, James Montgomery Flagg, and Joseph Pennell and writers like Booth Tarkington, Samuel Hopkins Adams, and Ernest Poole became cheerleaders for the war-hungry regime. Musicians, comedians, sculptors, ministers — and of course the movie industry — were all happily drafted to the cause, eager to wear the 'invisible uniform of war.' Isadora Duncan, an avant-garde pioneer of what today would be called sexual liberation, became a toe tapper in patriotic pageants at the Metropolitan Opera House. The most enduring and iconic image of the time is Flagg's 'I Want You' poster of Uncle Sam pointing the shaming finger