increasingly for heavy industry and the highly profitable consumer goods industries, although the latter could often rely on retained profits. The role of the government thus declined as the main organ of capital accumulation to be replaced by the banks, as Alexander Gerschenkron has remarked.
As happened elsewhere, the Russian banks became somewhat more concentrated. In 1900 the six biggest commercial banks controlled 47 percent of deposits and other liabilities. By 1913 that share had risen to 55 percent. Marxists such as Vladimir Lenin believed concentration of finance capital, and these big capitalists’ underwriting of the cartels, would bring on revolution. It seems highly doubtful that this would have happened in absence of war, however. In any case, all the tsarist banks were nationalized by the Bolsheviks in 1917. See also: ECONOMY, TSARIST; FOREIGN TRADE; INDUSTRIALIZATION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Crisp, Olga. (1976). Studies in the Russian Economy before 1914. London: Macmillan. Falkus, M. E. (1972). The Industrialization of Russia,
1700-1914. London: Papermac. Gatrell, Peter. (1986). The Tsarist Economy, 1850-1917.
New York: St. Martin’s. Gerschenkron, Alexander. (1962). Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kahan, Arcadius. (1989). Russian Economic History, ed. Roger Weiss. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kaser, Michael C. (1978). “Russian Entrepreneurship.” In The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. VII: The Industrial Economies, Capital, Labour, and Enterprise, Part 2, The United States, Japan, and Russia, eds. Peter Mathias and M. M. Postan. London: Cambridge University Press.
A Russian steam sauna or bathhouse, which served as the primary form of hygiene and was consid122
ered a source of great pleasure and a cure of maladies.
According to the seventeenth-century account of Adam Olearius, “in all towns and villages, they have many public and private baths, in which they [the Russians] may often be found.” Because it was warm and had an abundant water supply, the banya also served as a place for childbearing. While the word banya is a Latin borrowing (from banea), the traditional Russian banya had Finno-Ugrian origins. The earliest written source to mention banya dates to the eleventh century and is made in connection to Novgorod. Archaeologists have also unearthed wooden bani (pl.) dating to the same period in the city. Masonry bani, built according to Byzantine traditions, were known in the southern Rus lands (in Pereyaslavl and Kiev) dating to the late eleventh century.
Medieval and modern accounts all agree about the practice of washing in the banya. After exposing the body to high-heat vapors, and consequently heavily perspired, people lashed their bodies with bundles of young tree branches (usually of birch) that had been soaked in boiling water, thus providing a massaging effect and anointing the skin with oils from the leaves. Following this, people often immersed themselves in cold water or snow and, thereafter, proceeded to wash with soap and water. Traditionally, bani in Russia were either private or public. Both types can still be found in Russia. Despite attempts by the Russian government (e.g., Stoglav of 1551, Elizabeth in 1743, and Catherine II in 1783) to separate women from men in the public bani, some city bani remained unisex as late as the early nineteenth century. The only separation of the sexes that occurred in these bani was in the dressing rooms.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cross A. G. (1991). “The Russian Banya in the Description of Foreign Travellers and in the Depictions of Foreign and Russian Artists.” Oxford Slavonic Papers 25:34-59. Olearius, Adam. (1967). The Travels of Olearius in the 17th-Century Russia, tr. and ed. Samuel H. Baron. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. The Russian Primary Chronicle. (1973). Tr. and ed. Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor. Cambridge, MA: Mediaeval Academy of America.
(1940-1995), minister of internal affairs of the USSR; minister of internal affairs, minister of security.
Born in Primorskoy Kray of the Soviet Far East, Barannikov joined the militia organs of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in 1961. A graduate of the Higher School of the Militia, he rose to prominence under President Boris Yeltsin and was appointed minister of Internal Affairs of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in September 1990, a post he held until August 1991. In the aftermath of the unsuccessful August coup in 1991, he was appointed minister of Internal Affairs of the Soviet Union. After the end of the Soviet Union, Baran-nikov was appointed director-general of the Federal Security Agency of the Russian Republic in December 1991 and held that post briefly until he was appointed minister of security and head of the Federal Counter-Intelligence Service of the Russian Republic in January 1992. He held that post until July 1993, when he broke with Yeltsin over the emerging struggle between the president and the Russian parliament. In October 1993 he was arrested as one of the conspirators of the White House revolt against Yeltsin. Barannikov was freed from prison in 1994 by an act of the State Duma and died of a heart attack in 1995. Barannikov held the rank of General of the Army in the Ministry of Internal Affairs. See also: OCTOBER 1993 EVENTS; YELTSIN, BORIS NIKO-LAYEVICH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gevorkian, Natalia. (1993). “The KGB: ‘They Still Need Us’.” Bulletin of Atomic Scientists (January/February 1993):36-38. Knight, Amy. (1996). Spies without Cloaks: The KGB’s Successors. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Waller, J. Michael, and Yasmann, Victor J. (1995). “Russia’s Great Criminal Revolution: The Role of the Security Services.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 11(4).
(1859-1924), Italian soldier, politician, and economist with strong mathematical training.
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Enrico Barone was a contemporary and interlocutor of both Leon Walras and Vilfredo Pareto, best known for his careful formulation of the equilibrium system that would have to be solved by central planners in a socialist economy. Published in 1908 as “Il Ministro della Produzione nello Stato Col-lettivista” in the journal Giornale delgi Economisti, and reprinted in English in F. A. Hayek’s edited volume, Collectivist Economic Planning, his formulation provided an analytic foundation for arguments supporting the feasibility of socialist calculation, socialist central planning, and ultimately “market socialism.” In it he provided a Walrasian (general equilibrium) system of equations whose solutions would resolve the valuation and coordination quandary for socialist central planners-a system of economic rationality without markets for production inputs and capital. Socialist economists such as Oscar Lange, Fred Taylor, and Maurice Dobb, have taken this as a refutation of Ludwig von Mises’s critique of the possibility of economic rationality under socialist planning. In particular, it is argued that his formulation shows how modern high-speed multiprocessor computing can be used to find optimal scarcity valuations and prices for all products and assets in an economy, thereby allowing rational formulation of an economic plan by social planners.
Barone also contributed to general equilibrium theory by showing Walras how to incorporate variable production techniques into his equilibrium system of equations (the Walrasian system). This contributed to the development of marginal productivity theory, a central part of neoclassical economic analysis. Finally, he made notable contribution to the economics of taxation in his three studies of public finance in 1912. See also: COMMAND ADMINISTRATIVE ECONOMY; MARKET SOCIALISM; SOCIALISM
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Samuelson, P. A. (1947). Foundations of Economic Analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Schumpeter, J. A. (1954). History of Economic Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press.
Labor dues; corv?e.
Barshchina referred to unpaid labor dues (corv?e) owed by a peasant to his lord, most commonly labor on the
