(that is, with the probable exception of the Western Ukraine), Soviet attitudes have come back: wholesale in Belarus, where the dissident movement had been weak, and partly in Russia and Ukraine, where the dissidents continue operating as a tolerated political minority within “hybrid” (partly democratic, partly authoritarian) regimes.
In the old Soviet Union, where the citizens had lived under the communist regime for seventy years-as opposed to forty years in East Central Europe-many persons were like walking wounded. The dissident movement submitted their fellow citizens to a moral triage between members of the dissidents and members of the establishment, between the dissidents’ foul- and fair-weather friends, between the establishment’s decent reformers and its willing executioners. The dissident movement also raised fundamental questions about the future of Russia. Solzhenitsyn wondered whether Russia should return to a humane conservative monarchy, while Sakharov, with the support of U.S. presidents and West European statesmen, chose to work for a liberal democracy and a civic society. Most interesting in view of the resurgence of pro-Soviet thinking in Russia and the Eastern Ukraine in the twenty-first century is the harsh judgment of the Zionist wouldbe emigrant Kuznetsov, who challenged both Solzhenitsyn and Sakharov. Wrote Kuznetsov December 14, 1970: “The essential characteristics of the structure of the regime are to all intents and purposes immutable, and . . . the particular political culture of the Russian people may be classed as despotic. There are not many variations in this type of power structure, the framework of which was erected by Ivan the Terrible and by Peter the Great. I think that the Soviet regime is the lawful heir of these widely differing Russian rulers. . . . It fully answers the heartfelt wishes of a significant-but alas not the better-part of its population” (Kuznetsov, 1975, p. 63; Rubenstein, 1985, pp. 170-171). Was the dissident movement, therefore, bound to fail in the old Soviet Union? The definitive answer may be given later, a generation after the breakup of the USSR, or roughly by the year 2021. See also: BREZHNEV, LEONID ILICH; GRIGORENKO, PETER GRIGORIEVICH; INTELLIGENTSIA; KHRUSHCHEV, NIKITA SERGEYEVICH; MEDVEDEV, ROY ALEXANDROVICH; NATIONALISM IN THE SOVIET UNION; SAKHAROV, ANDREI DMITRIEVICH; SAMIZDAT; SOLZHENITSYN, ALEXANDER ISAYEVICH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alexeyeva, Ludmilla. (1985). Soviet Dissent, tr. John Glad and Carol Pearce. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. Amalrik, Andrei A. (1970). Will the Soviet Union Survive until 1984? New York: Harper and Row. Brumberg, Abraham, ed. (1968). “In Quest of Justice: Protest and Dissent in the USSR.” Parts I and II, Problems of Communism 17(4 and 5):1-119, 1-120. Grigorenko, Petro. (1982). Memoirs, tr. Thomas P. Whitney. New York: Norton. Havel, Vaclav. (1985). “The Power of the Powerless.” In Havel, Vaclav, et al., The Power of the Powerless: Citizens Against the State in Central-Eastern Europe, ed. John Keane. London: Hutchinson. Kowalewski, David. (1987). “The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.” In International Handbook of Human Rights, ed. Jack Donnelly and Rhoda E. Howard. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
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Kuznetsov, Edward. (1975). Prison Diaries, tr. Howard Spier. New York: Stein and Day. Mamonova, Tatyana, ed. (1984). Women and Russia. Boston: Beacon Press. Medvedev, Roy A. (1971). Let History Judge, tr. Collen Taylor, ed. David Joravsky and Georges Haupt. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Putin, Vladimir. (2000). First Person: An Astonishingly Frank Self-Portrait by Russia’s President Vladimir Putin, with Nataliya Gevorkyan, Natalya Timakova, and Andrei Koslesnikov, tr. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. New York: Public Affairs. Reddaway, Peter, and Bloch, Sidney. (1977). Psychiatric Terror. New York: Basic Books. Reich, Walter. (1979). “Grigorenko Gets a Second Opinion” The New York Times Magazine, May 13, 1979: 18, 39-42, 44, 46. Rubenstein, Joshua. (1985). Soviet Dissidents: Their Struggle for Human Rights, 2nd edition, revised and expanded. Boston: Beacon Press. Sakharov, Andrei A. (1968). Progress, Coexistence and Intellectual Freedom, tr. The New York Times. New York: Norton. Sakharov, Andrei A. (1974). “In Answer to Solzhenitsyn [Letter to the Soviet Leaders],” dated April 3, 1974, trans. Guy Daniels. New York Review of Books 21(10) June 13, 1974:3-4,6. Sakharov, Andrei A. (1992). Memoirs, tr. Richard Lourie. New York: Vintage Books. Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. (1963). One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, tr. Max Hayward and Ronald Hin-gley. New York: Praeger. Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. (1974). Letter to the Soviet Leaders, trans. Hilary Sternberg. New York: Index on Censorship in association with Harper and Row. Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. (1985). The Gulag Archipelago 1918-1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation, tr. Thomas P. Whitney (Parts I-IV) and Harry Wil-letts (Parts V-VII), abridged by Edward E. Ericson, Jr. New York: Harper and Row. Taagepera, Rein. (1984). Softening Without Liberalization in the Soviet Union: The Case of Juri Kukk. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Verba, Lesya, and Yasen, Bohdan, eds. (1980). The Human Rights Movement in Ukraine: Documents of the Ukrainian Helsinki Group 1976-1980. Baltimore: Smoloskyp Publishers. Walesa, Lech. (1992). The Struggle and the Triumph: An Autobiography, with the collaboration of Arkadius Rybicki, tr. Franklin Philip, in collaboration with Helen Mahut. New York: Arcade Publishers.
YAROSLAV BILINSKY
(d. 1294), Grand prince of Vladimir.
In 1260 Dmitry Alexandrovich was appointed to Novgorod by his father Alexander Yaroslavich “Nevsky” who, two years later, ordered him to attack the Teutonic Knights at Yurev (Tartu, Dorpat) in Estonia. But in 1264, after his father died, the Novgorodians evicted Dmitry because of his youth. Nevertheless, in 1268 they requested him to wage war against the castle of Rakovor (Rakvere, We-senburg) in Estonia. After Dmitry’s uncle Yaroslav of Vladimir died in 1271, he occupied Novgorod again, but his uncle Vasily evicted him. Vasily died in 1276, and Dmitry replaced him as grand prince of Vladimir. After that the Novgorodians once again invited him to rule their town. While there he waged war on Karelia and in 1280 built a stone fortress at Kopore near the Gulf of Finland. In 1281, however, Dmitry quarreled with the Novgorodi-ans. He waged war against them and because of this failed to present himself to the new Khan in Saray. His younger brother Andrei, who did visit the Golden Horde, was therefore awarded the patent for Vladimir. Because Dmitry refused to abdicate, the khan gave Andrei troops with which he evicted his brother and seized Vladimir and Novgorod. Dmitry fled to Sweden and later returned to Pereyaslavl. In 1283, when Andrei brought Tatar troops against him, Dmitry sought help from Khan Nogay, an enemy of the Golden Horde, who gave him troops. They wreaked havoc on northern Russia. Andrei eventually capitulated but continued to plot Dmitry’s overthrow. In 1293, after summoning the Tatars the fourth time, he succeeded in forcing Dmitry’s abdication. Dmitry died in 1294 while returning to Pereyaslavl Zalessky. See also: ALEXANDER YAROSLAVICH; ANDREI ALEXAN-DROVICH; GOLDEN HORDE; NOVGOROD THE GREAT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fennell, John. (1983). The Crisis of Medieval Russia 1200-1304. London: Longman. Martin, Janet. (1995). Medieval Russia 980-1584. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
(d. 1606), Tsar of Russia (1605-1606), also known as Pretender Dmitry.
Dmitry of Uglich, Tsar Ivan IV’s youngest son (born in 1582), supposedly died by accidentally cutting his own throat in 1591; however, many people believed that Boris Godunov had the boy murdered to clear a path to the throne for himself. In 1603 a man appeared in Poland-Lithuania claiming to be Dmitry, “miraculously” rescued from Go-dunov’s assassins. With the help of self-serving Polish lords, the Pretender Dmitry assembled an army and invaded Russia in 1604, intending to topple the “usurper” Tsar Boris. The Godunov regime launched a propaganda campaign against “False Dmitry,” identifying him as a runaway monk named Grigory Otrepev. Nevertheless, “Dmitry’s” invasion was welcomed by many Russians; and, after Tsar Boris’s sudden death in April 1605, “Dmitry” triumphantly entered Moscow as the new tsar. This mysterious young man, who truly believed that he was Dmitry of Uglich, was the only tsar ever raised to the throne by means of a military campaign and popular uprisings.
Tsar Dmitry was extremely well educated for a tsar and ruled wisely for about a year. Contrary to the conclusions of many historians, he was loved by most of his subjects and never faced a popular rebellion. His enemies circulated rumors that he was a lewd and bloodthirsty impostor who intended to convert the Russian people to Catholicism, but Tsar Dmitry remained secure on his throne. In May 1606, he married the Polish princess
