He tried to take advantage of his strong popularity to drive Louis XVIII off the throne and restore his own personal power. But that attempt lasted only one hundred days and collapsed with the catastrophic defeat at Waterloo on June 18, 1815. Napoleon had to abdicate again and was sent to the island of Sainte-H?l?ne, where he died on May 5, 1821.
Following this final abdication, a new treaty was signed in Paris on November 20, 1815. It was much tougher than the previous one; the cost of the one hundred days was high. France was confined to its former boundaries of 1790. It was authorized to keep Avignon and the Comtat-Venaissin, Montb?liard and Mulhouse, but lost the duchy of Bouillon and the German fortresses of Philippeville and Marienbourg given to the Netherlands, Sar-relouis and Sarrebruck attributed to Prussia, Landau given to Bavaria, the area of Gex attached to Switzerland, and a large part of Savoy given to the king of Piedmont. Regarding the colonies, the loss of Malta, St. Lucia, Tobago, and of the Isle of France was confirmed. A financial cost was added to this territorial cost: the French state had to pay an indemnity of 700 million francs and to undergo in its northeast frontier areas a military occupation. This occupation was limited to five years and 150,000 men but had to be paid by the French budget.
Despite its severity, the second Treaty of Paris was faithfully respected by King Louis XVIII; this respect allowed France to get rid of the foreign occupation as early as 1818-two years earlier than expected-and to play again at that date a significant role in the international relations. See also: ALEXANDER I; FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH; NAPOLEAN I
MARIE-PIERRE REY
Party congresses, the nominal policy-setting conclaves of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, were held at intervals ranging from one to five years, and extended from the First, in 1898, to the last, the Twenty-Eighth, in 1990. Made up since the 1920s of two- to five thousand delegates from the party’s local organizations, party congresses were formally empowered to elect the Central Committee, to determine party rules, and to enact resolutions that laid down the party’s basic programmatic guidelines. Party conferences, from the
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Table 1. Communist Party Congresses and Conferences
Delegates Number Date Locale (Voting) (Non-voting) 1st Congress March 1898 Minsk
2nd Congress July 1903 Brussels and London
43
14
3rd Congress April 1905 London
24
14
1st Conference December 1905 Tammerfors
41
4th Congress April 1906 Stockholm
112
22
2nd Conference November 1906 Tammerfors
32
ca. 15 5th Congress May-June 1907 London
336
3rd Conference July (August) 1907 Kotka (Finland)
26
4th Conference November 1907 Helsingfors
27
5th Conference January 1909 Paris
16
2
6th Conference January 1912 Prague
12
4
“March Conference” March 1917 Petrograd ca. 120 7th Conference April 1917 Petrograd
133
18
6th Congress August 1917 Petrograd
157
110
7th Congress March 1918 Moscow
47
59
8th Congress March 1919 Moscow ca. 300 ? 8th Conference December 1919 Moscow
45
73
9th Congress March 1920 Moscow
554
162
9th Conference September 1920 Moscow
116
