against the encroaching Lithuanians.
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After his father died in 1246, Nevsky visited Khan Batu in Saray who sent him to the Great Khan at Karakorum in Mongolia. He came home in 1249 as the grand prince of Kiev and of all Rus, including Novgorod, to which he returned. However, his younger brother Andrei received the patrimonial domain of Vladimir on the Klyazma. After Nevsky visited the Golden Horde in 1252, the khan sent a punitive force against Andrei because he had rebelled against the khan. The Tatars drove him out of Vladimir. Nevsky succeeded him and gained jurisdiction over Suzdalia and Novgorod. Because he was a subservient vassal, the khan let him centralize his control over the other towns of Suzdalia. He also served the khan faithfully by suppressing opposition to the khan’s policies, with the help of the Tatar army. Nevertheless, after the citizens of many towns rebelled against the Tatar census takers, Nevsky interceded, evidently successfully, on behalf of his people. In 1262, on his fourth visit to the Golden Horde, he fell ill. While returning home he became a monk and died at Gorodets on the Volga on November 14, 1263.
Although Nevsky’s valor was generally admired, his collaboration with the Tatars was criticized by his contemporaries and by historians. Metropolitan Cyril, however, exonerated the prince in his “Life of Alexander Nevsky,” and the church canonized him during the reign of Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible). See also: ANDREI YAROSLAVICH; BATU; GOLDEN HORDE; IVAN IV; KIEVAN RUS; NOVGOROD THE GREAT; VSEVOLOD III
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fennell, John. (1983). The Crisis of Medieval Russia, 1200-1304. London: Longman. Martin, Janet. (1995). Medieval Russia, 980-1584. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Vernadsky, George. (1953). The Mongols and Russia. New Haven: Yale University Press.
fall of the Russian monarchy in 1917. A princess of the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt in Germany and granddaughter of England’s Queen Victoria, she lost her mother and younger sister to diphtheria when she was still a child, and she responded to this loss by turning inward. This tendency toward isolation intensified after her 1894 marriage to Nicholas, when her principles came into conflict with the reality of Russian court life. Scandalized by the seeming decadence of the aristocracy, she withdrew from society, eliciting the scorn of the Russian social elite.
Alexandra dedicated most of her time to her four daughters (Olga, Tatiana, Maria, and Anasta-sia) and her son, Alexei, who was born in 1904. Soon after the birth of this long-awaited male heir to the throne, it was discovered that Alexei had hemophilia. His illness became Alexandra’s primary concern. Grigory Yefimovich Rasputin, a self-styled holy man, managed to stop Alexei’s bleeding and thus became important to the royal family. Rasputin’s closeness to the ruling family led to speculation about his influence over political decisions and to disdain for the royal family among the educated layers of society. With the start of World War I, which pitted Russia against Germany, Alexandra’s German background further contributed to her unpopularity. Many accused her of heading a German faction in the government. Although these charges were groundless, they served to undermine the authority of the monarchy, thus helping pave the way for the February Revolution of 1917. The Bolsheviks brutally murdered the entire royal family in July 1918.
The negative image of Alexandra shaped by her detractors has given way to more objective, though not always dispassionate, accounts of her life. She is most often portrayed as a tragic figure and as a dedicated wife and mother. In 1981, the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad canonized Alexandra, along with her family, for accepting death with faith in God and humility, and the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church followed suit in 2000.
ALEXANDRA FEDOROVNA
(1872-1918), wife of Tsar Nicholas II and last empress of Russia.
Alexandra Fedorovna Romanova was at the center of the political drama that led to the downSee also: ALEXEI NIKOLAYEVICH; NICHOLAS II; RASPUTIN, GRIGORY YEFIMOVICH; ROMANOV DYNASTY
Kozlov, Vladimir A., and Khrustalev, Vladimir M., eds. (1997). The Last Diary of Tsaritsa Alexandra. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Massie, Robert K. (2000). Nicholas and Alexandra. New York: Ballantine Books.
See also: EISENSTEIN, SERGEI MIKHAILOVICH; MOTION PICTURES; ORLOVA, LYUBOV PETROVNA; PROLETKULT; SOCIALIST REALISM
(1903-1983), pseudonym of Grigory A. Mormo-nenko, Soviet film director.
The leading director of musical comedies in the Stalin era, Alexandrov began his artistic career as a costume and set designer for a provincial opera company. By 1921, he was a member of the Pro-letkult theater in Moscow, where he met Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein. Alexandrov served as assistant director on all of Eisenstein’s silent films and took part in an ill-fated trip to Hollywood and Mexico, which lasted from 1929 to 1932 and ended in Eisenstein’s disgrace and the entourage’s forced return home.
After this debacle, Alexandrov found it prudent to strike out on his own as a film director. By returning to his artistic roots in musical theater, he found a way to work successfully within the strictures of Socialist Realism by adapting the conventions of the Hollywood musical comedy to Soviet realities. His films from this era were The Jolly Fellows (1934), The Circus (1936), Volga, Volga (1938), and The Shining Path (1940), all of which enjoyed great popularity with Soviet audiences at a time when entertainment was sorely needed. Central to the success of these movies were the cheerful songs by composer Isaak Dunaevsky’s and the comedic talents of Liubov Orlova, Alexandrov’s leading lady and wife.
Alexandrov was a great favorite of Stalin’s, and was named People’s Artist of the USSR in 1948, the country’s highest award for artistic achievement. Although Alexandrov continued to direct feature films until 1960, his most notable post-war venture was the Cold War classic, Meeting on the Elba (1949). This film was quite a departure from his oeuvre of the 1930s. Alexandrov’s final two projects were tributes. He honored the mentor of his youth by restoring and reconstructing the fragments of Eisenstein’s Que Viva Mexico! (1979), and he commemorated his wife’s life and art in Liubov Orlova (1983).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kenez, Peter. (2001). Cinema and Soviet Society from the Revolution to the Death of Stalin. London: I.B. Tauris.
(1877-1970), patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church from January 31, 1945, to April 17, 1970.
Sergei Vladimirovich Simansky took monastic vows in 1902. He served as rector in several seminaries and was subsequently made a bishop. He became metropolitan in Leningrad in 1933 and endured the German siege of that city during World War II. According to eyewitness accounts of his situation in 1937, he anticipated arrest at any moment, for virtually all of his fellow priests had been seized by then. He celebrated the liturgy with the only deacon left in Leningrad, and even that coreligionist soon died. During the siege of the city he lived on the edge of starvation. The members of the cathedral choir were dying around him, and the choirmaster himself died in the middle of a church service. Alexei himself barely had the strength to clear a path to the cathedral through the snow in winter.
Under war-time pressures, Stalin permitted the election of a patriarch, but the one chosen soon died. Alexei was elected in January 1945. He reopened a few seminaries and convents and consecrated some new bishops. Of the parishes that were still functioning at the time, most were in territories that had been recently annexed or reoccupied by the USSR. In fact, one could travel a thousand kilometers on the Trans-Siberian Railroad without passing a single working church. The later anti-religious campaign of communist general secretary Nikita Khrushchev resulted in the closing of almost half of those churches still functioning in the 1950s.
