Glasnost was slow to develop in Ukraine due to Shcherbytsky’s perseverance in his post, but the first mass demonstrations in Lviv and Kiev took place in 1988. The next year saw the emergence of a mass popular front, Rukh (Movement), and the defeats of many prominent party leaders in free elections. The elections to the Ukrainian Parliament in 1990 broke the Communist Party’s hold on political power, while Rukh openly proclaimed independence as its ultimate aim.
INDEPENDENT UKRAINE
In the wake of a failed coup in Moscow, on August 24, 1991, the Ukrainian Parliament proclaimed the republic’s full independence, an act endorsed by more than 90 percent of voters in a referendum in December 1991. Under President Leonid Kravchuk (1991-1994), Ukraine experienced hyperinflation and a sharp drop in the gross national product. The state promoted Ukrainiza-tion of education and culture and in foreign affairs sought to develop closer ties with the West. In the elections of 1994 Kravchuk lost to Leonid Kuchma, who advocated economic reform and the restoration of Ukraine’s special relationship with Russia. By dividing the Black Sea Fleet between Russia and Ukraine (1995), Kuchma resolved the tension between the two countries. In 1997 he signed a comprehensive friendship treaty with Russia. Kuchma was re-elected in 1999 and, after a long period of decline, the economy began to recover during Victor Yushchenko’s tenure as prime minister from 1999 to 2001. For most of the 1990s Ukraine was among the largest recipients of U.S. financial aid. Relations between the West and Kuchma’s administration cooled in 2001 and 2002 due to rampant corruption in Ukraine, as well as the president’s alleged involvement in a journalist’s murder and the sale of a sophisticated radar system to Iraq.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RUSSIAN HISTORY
See also: BOROTBISTY; COSSACKS; CRIMEA; CRIMEAN TATARS; CYRIL AND METHODIUS SOCIETY; ENSERF-MENT; KRAVCHUK, LEONID MAKAROVICH; MUSCOVY; ROMANOV DYNASTY; NATIONALITIES POLICIES, SOVIET; NATIONALITIES POLICIES, TSARIST; SKRYPNYK, MYKOLA OLEKSIIOVYCH; UNIATE CHURCH; WORLD WAR I; WORLD WAR II
Armstrong, John A. (1990). Ukrainian Nationalism, 3rd ed. Englewood, NJ: Ukrainian Academic Press. D’Anieri, Paul; Kravchuk, Robert S.; and Kuzio, Taras. (1999). Politics and Society in Ukraine. Boulder, CO: Westview. Dyczok, Marta. (2000). Ukraine: Movement without Change, Change without Movement Amsterdam: Har-wood Academic Publishers. Harasymiw, Bodhan. (2002). Post-Communist Ukraine. Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press. Himka, John-Paul. (1988). Galician Villagers and the Ukrainian National Movement in the Nineteenth Century. Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press. Kappeler, Andreas. (1994). Kleine Geschichte der Ukraine. Munich: C. H. Beck. Kappeler, Andreas; Kohut, Zenon E.; Sysysn, Frank E.; and Von Hagen, Mark L., eds. (2003). Culture, Nation, and Identity: The Ukrainian-Russian Encounter, 1600-1945. Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press. Kuzio, Taras. (1997). Ukraine under Kuchma: Political Reform, Economic Transformation, and Security Policy in Independent Ukraine. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Kuzio, Taras. (1998). Ukraine: State and Nation Building. New York: Routledge. Kuzio, Taras, and Wilson, Andrew. (1994). Ukraine: Per-estroika to Independence. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Kuromiya, Hiroaki. (1998). Freedom and Terror in the Don-bas: A Ukrainian-Russian Borderland, 1870s-1990s. New York: Cambridge University Press. Magocsi, Paul R. (1985). Ukraine: A Historical Atlas. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Magocsi, Paul R. (1996). A History of Ukraine. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Marples, David. (1991). Ukraine under Perestroika: Ecology, Economics and the Workers’ Revolt. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Motyl, Alexander J. (1993). Dilemmas of Independence: Ukraine after Totalitarianism. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RUSSIAN HISTORY
Potichnyj, Peter J., and Aster, Howard, eds. (1987). Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective. Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press. Potichnyj, Peter J.; Raeff, Marc; Pelenski, Jaroslaw; and Zekulin, Gleb N., eds. (1992). Ukraine and Russia in their Historical Encounter. Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press. Rudnytsky, Ivan L. (1987). Essays in Modern Ukrainian History. Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press. Shkandrij, Miroslav. (2001). Russia and Ukraine: Literature and the Discourse of Empire from Napoleonic to Postcolonial Times. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Subtelny, Orest. (2000). Ukraine: A History, 3rd ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Szporluk, Roman. (1982). Ukraine: A Brief History, 2nd ed. Detroit: Ukrainian Festival Committee. Szporluk, Roman. (2000). Russia, Ukraine, and the Breakup of the Soviet Union. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. Wilson, Andrew. (2000). The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation. New Haven: Yale University Press. Yekelchyk, Serhy. (2003). Stalin’s Empire of Memory: Russian-Ukrainian Relations in the Soviet Historical Imagination. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
SERHY YEKELCHYK
ULOZHENIE OF 1649 See LAW CODE OF 1649.
The traditional name for Eastern or Byzantine rite churches in communion with the Roman Catholic Church.
The largest church within the Uniate Church is Ukrainian Catholic Church, which emerged as a result of the church union of Berestia (Brest-Litovsk) in 1596. Of the Soviet successor states, smaller pockets of Byzantine-rite Catholics also exist in Belarus. Although the historic term “Uniates” is still widely used in Russia, Ukrainian Catholics in the early twenty-first century considered it imprecise and pejorative.
By the end of the sixteenth century, a crisis within the Orthodox Church in the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, combined with pressure from Polish
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authorities, prompted some Orthodox bishops to advocate union with Rome. Part of their motivation was to ensure the equal treatment of Orthodox believers and clergy in the Catholic Commonwealth. Having received assurances that the Byzantine liturgy, rites, and entitlement of priests to marry would be respected, in 1595 four Orthodox bishops and the metropolitan of Kiev agreed to recognize the pope’s supreme authority in matters of faith and dogma. Following the approval of Pope Clement VIII, the union was proclaimed in October 1596 at a synod in Berestia.
Opposition from other bishops within the Kiev metropoly and the Orthodox nobility sparked a fierce religious polemic. The Ukrainian Cossacks proved themselves to be staunch opponents of the union. During the Cossack- Polish wars of 1648-1657, the Cossacks often massacred Uniates en masse. The Cossack state under Bohdan Khmel-nytsky dissolved the Uniate Church, but it continued to exist in Poland. The partitions of Poland at the end of the eighteenth century split the Uniate church between the Russian and Austrian empires. Russian tsars encouraged the conversion of Uniates to Orthodoxy until 1839, when Nicholas I declared the Union of Berestia null and void, thus forcing all Uniates into the fold of the Russian Orthodox Church.
In contrast, the Uniate Church in Austria was granted equal status with the Roman Catholic Church. In 1807 Pope Pius VII created the Uniate metropoly of Halych with its see in Lviv, the capital of Galicia. Austrian rulers established educational institutions and provided support for the clergy of what they renamed the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church. During the nineteenth century it became the national church of Galicia’s Ukrainians, culminating in the long tenure of Metropolitan Andrei Sheptytsky (1900-1944), who achieved the stature of a national symbol. In 1939 the church had some 5.5 million faithful.
In April 1945, with Western Ukraine under Soviet control, Stalin ordered the entire Ukrainian Catholic hierarchy imprisoned. In March 1946 the authorities convened in Lviv a spurious sobor (church council), which reunited the Uniates with the Orthodox Church. However, the Uniate Church continued to exist underground, as well as in the Ukrainian diaspora. A mass movement to restore the Ukrainian Catholic Church began during the glasnost period and culminated in the church’s legalization in December 1989. It quickly regained its position as a dominant church in Western
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