dissolved the duma, and Zhordania and other radicals signed the Vyborg Manifesto protesting the dissolution. Zhordania was forced into the political underground, writing for clandestine newspapers and sparring in print with Stalin over the question of non-Russian nationalities.
With the outbreak of the revolution in 1917 Zhordania became the chairman of the Tiflis Soviet. He was an opponent of the Bolshevik victory in Petrograd in October of that year and was instrumental in the declaration of an independent Georgian republic on May 26, 1918. Zhordania was elected president of the republic and served until the invasion of the Red Army in February 1921. From exile in France he planned an insurrection against the Communist government, but the revolt of August 1924 was bloodily suppressed by the Soviets. Zhordania spent his last years in exile, largely in France, writing his memoirs, conspiring with Western intelligence agencies against the Soviets in Georgia, still the acknowledged leader of a movement whose members fought bitterly one with another. See also: CAUCAUS; GEORGIA AND GEORGIANS; MENSHEVIKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jones, Stephen. (1989). “Marxism and Peasant Revolt in the Russian Empire: The Case of the Gurian Republic.” Slavonic and East European Review 67(3): 403-434. Suny, Ronald Grigor. (1994). The Making of the Georgian Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
(1896-1974), marshal of the Soviet Union (1943), four-time Hero of the Soviet Union, and the Red Army’s “Greatest Captain” during the Soviet Union’s Great Patriotic War (World War II).
Stalin’s closest wartime military confidant, Georgy Zhukov was a superb strategist and pracENCYCLOPEDIA OF RUSSIAN HISTORY
titioner of operational art who nonetheless displayed frequent tactical blemishes. Unsparing of himself, his subordinates, and his men, he was renowned for his iron will, strong stomach, and defensive and offensive tenacity.
A veteran of World War I and the Russian Civil War, Zhukov graduated from the Senior Command Cadre Course in 1930 and became deputy commander of the Belorussian Military District in 1938 and commander of Soviet Forces in Mongolia in 1939. After Zhukov defeated Japanese forces at Khalkhin Gol in August 1939, Stalin appointed him commander of the Kiev Special Military District in June 1940 and Red Army Chief of Staff and Deputy Peoples’ Commissar of Defense in January 1941.
During World War II, Zhukov served on the Stavka VGK (Headquarters of the Supreme High Command) as First Deputy Peoples’ Commissar of Defense and Deputy Supreme High Commander, as Stavka VGK representative to Red Army forces, and as front commander. In June 1941 Zhukov orchestrated the Southwestern Front’s unsuccessful armored counterstrokes near Brody and Dubno against German forces in Ukraine. As Reserve Front (army group) commander from July to September, Zhukov slowed the German advance at Smolensk, prompting Hitler to delay his offensive against Moscow temporarily. Zhukov directed the Leningrad Front’s successful defense of Leningrad in September 1941 and the Western Front’s successful defense and counteroffensive at Moscow in the winter of 1941-1942.
In the summer of 1942, Zhukov’s Western Front conducted multiple offensives to weaken the German advance toward Stalingrad and, in November-December 1942, led Operation Mars, the failed companion piece to the Red Army’s Stalingrad counteroffensive (Operation Uranus), against German forces west of Moscow. During the winter campaign of 1942-1943, Zhukov coordinated Red Army forces in Operation Spark, which partially lifted the Leningrad blockade, and Operation Polar Star, an abortive attempt to defeat German Army Group North and liberate the entire Leningrad region. While serving as Stavka VGK representative throughout 1943 and 1944, Zhukov played a decisive role in Red Army victories at Kursk and Belorussia, the advance to the Dnieper, and the liberation of Ukraine, while suffering setbacks in the North Caucasus (April-May 1943) and near Kiev (October 1943). Zhukov commanded the First Belorussian Front in the libera Marshal Georgy Zhukov led the Red Army to victory in World War II and helped bring Nikita Khrushchev to power in 1953. © HULTON ARCHIVE tion of Poland and the victorious but costly Battle of Berlin.
After commanding the Group of Soviet Occupation Forces, Germany, and the Soviet Army Ground Forces, and serving briefly as Deputy Armed Forces Minister, Zhukov was “exiled” in 1946 by Stalin, who assigned him to command the Odessa and Ural Military Districts, ostensibly to remove a potential opponent. Rehabilitated after Stalin’s death in 1953, Zhukov served as minister of Defense and helped Khrushchev consolidate his political power in 1957. When Zhukov resisted Khrushchev’s policy for reducing Army strength, at Khrushchev’s instigation, the party denounced Zhukov, ostensibly for “violating Leninist principles” and fostering a “cult of Comrade G.K. Zhukov” in the army. Replaced as minister of Defense by Rodion Yakovlevich Malinovsky in October 1957 and retired in March 1958, Zhukov’s reputation soared once again after Khrushchev’s removal as Soviet leader in 1964.
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See also: KHRUSHCHEV, NIKITA SERGEYEVICH; STALIN, JOSEF VISSARIONOVICH; WORLD WAR II
Anfilov, Viktor. (1993). “Georgy Konstantinovich Zhu-kov.” In Stalin’s Generals, ed. Harold Shukman. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Glantz, David M. (1999). Zhukov’s Greatest Defeat: The Red Army’s Epic Disaster in Operation Mars, 1942. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. Zhukov, Georgy Konstantinovich. (1985). Reminiscences and Reflections. 2 vols. Moscow: Progress.
(1847-1921), scientist whose research typified the innovative avionics of prerevolutionary Russia.
Like a number of other outstanding Russian scientists of the early Soviet period, Nikolai Yegorovich Zhukovsky was trained in the tsarist era and began his scientific career before the revolution. A specialist in aerodynamics and hydrodynamics, he supervised the construction of one of the world’s first experimental wind tunnels in 1902 and founded the first European institute of aerodynamics in 1904. He was a corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Early in the Soviet period, Zhukovsky was chosen to head the new Central Aero- Hydrodynamics Institute.
Zhukovsky developed the principal concepts underlying the science of space flight, and in that sense he was a pioneer, not only of aviation in prerevolutionary Russia, but of the later strides made by Soviet scientists. One of his innovations was the testing of intricate aerial maneuvers (e.g., loop-the-loop, barrel rolls, spins) based on his earlier studies of the flight of birds. Vladimir I. Lenin called Zhukovsky the “father of Russian aviation.” He died of old age at seventy-four. See also: AVIATION; SPACE PROGRAM
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Oberg, James E. (1981). Red Star in Orbit. New York: Random House. Petrovich, G. V., ed. (1969). The Soviet Encyclopedia of Space Flight. Moscow: Mir.
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(1883-1936), Bolshevik revolutionary leader and associate of Lenin who after 1917 became first an ally, then rival, of Stalin and later fell victim to the Great Purge.
Grigory Yevseyevich Zinoviev was born as Yevsei-Gershon Aronovich Radomyslsky in Yeliza-vetgrad (later renamed Zinoviesk, now Kirovohrad, Kherson province, Ukraine). Of lower-middle-class Jewish origin, and with no formal education, he joined the Russian Social Democratic Workers’ Party in 1901. When the party split in 1903, Zinoviev followed Vladimir Lenin’s Bolshevik faction. Having gained experience as a political agitator in St. Petersburg during the 1905 Revolution, he became a member of the party’s Central Committee in 1907. After a brief term in prison the following year, Zinoviev was released because of his poor health and joined Lenin in western
