As proof, it offers detailed evidence to argue that the frequent wars of the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries were fought to defend the principle of lateral succession developed in the Kievan period. It argues at length that this principle continued to underlie succession decisions and legitimacy issues to one degree or another during much of the Mongol period, and remained important as late as the civil wars of the second quarter of the fifteenth century. The interpretation also set a new initial date for the era- the mid 1100s-which has become increasingly accepted by scholars in the field, and a number of new publications since the late 1980s minimize the use of the term “appanage era,” but most still retain much of the traditional interpretation associated with it. See also: KIEVAN RUS; MUSCOVY; NOVGOROD THE GREAT; RURIKID DYNASTY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Martin, Janet. (1995). Medieval Russia, 980-1584. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Miller, David B. (1986). “The Kievan Principality on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion: An Inquiry into Current Historical Research and Interpretation.” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 10:215-240. Pipes, Richard. (1974). Russia Under the Old Regime. New York: Scribners.
An informal term used to describe a part or the whole of a bureaucratic structure, such as the Communist Party.
The literal translation of apparat is apparatus. The Bolsheviks began as an underground movement, and, to survive, the party machine demanded solidarity and discipline. Members were known as apparatchiki, that is, men of the apparat, or as komitechiki, members of the underground committees. As time passed, the term came to refer to any part, or the whole, of the Soviet bureaucratic system. It was frequently used in later years as a term of denigration and contempt, as was the term apparatchik. See also: COMMUNIST PARTY OF THE SOVIET UNION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fainsod, Merle.(1961). How Russia is Ruled. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
as the Provisional Government failed to solve the war, economic, and other issues. Lenin’s April Theses also called for a Bolshevik party congress to revise the party program and to change the party name to communist. Lenin’s ideas initially shocked most Bolsheviks as much as other political leaders, but Lenin soon brought the Bolshevik Party to accept them. The Theses, especially those calling for immediate passage into the next stage of revolution and a soviet-based government, significantly redefined Bolshevism. See also: FEBRUARY REVOLUTION; LENIN, VLADIMIR ILICH; OCTOBER REVOLUTION; PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT; SOVIET
Harding, Neil. (1981). Lenin’s Political Thought: Theory and Practice in the Democratic Revolution. 2 vols. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Harding, Neil. (1996). Leninism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Lenin, Vladimir Ilich. (1964). “The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution.” In Collected Works, vol. 24. Moscow: Progress Publishers. Service, Robert. (1985-1994). Lenin: A Political Life. 3 vols. London: Macmillan.
REX A. WADE
Vladimir Ilich Lenin’s “April Theses” was one of the most influential and important documents of the Russian Revolution and Bolshevik history. The main ideas of Lenin’s April Theses were first delivered in speeches immediately after his arrival in Pet-rograd on April 16, 1917, and then formalized in a newspaper article (“The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution”) in the Bolshevik newspaper Pravda on April 20. The Theses refused any support for the Provisional Government, attacked the Petrograd soviet (council) leadership’s policy of cooperation with the Provisional Government, and declared that the soviets should be the basis for a new, revolutionary government. This latter position soon aligned the Bolsheviks with popular sentiment, which by summer was demanding “all power to the soviets,” that is, a government based on the soviets. The Theses also called for immediate radical social and economic reforms and for transforming the international war into civil war. Although Lenin’s theses were too radical for the optimistic and cooperative mood of April, they positioned the Bolsheviks to benefit from the discontentment and disillusionment that summer and fall
ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of medieval Rus, initially influenced by Byzantine architecture, developed a distinct set of styles between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries. As Moscow established its dominance and as contacts with western European culture increased in the late fifteenth century, Russian motifs began to blend with Western ones. By the eighteenth century the design of Russia’s public buildings followed Western styles. Rapid social change at the turn of the twentieth century and the establishment of Soviet power after 1917 generated new bursts of architectural experimentation.
Little is known of pre-Christian architecture among the eastern Slavs, but with the acceptance of Christianity by Grand Prince Vladimir of Kiev in 988, the construction of masonry churches spread throughout Rus. The largest and most complex of
these early churches was Kiev’s Cathedral of Divine Wisdom (1037-1050s), commissioned by Prince Yaroslav the Wise and built with the direction of Greek masters. The interior contained extensive mosaics as well as frescoes. Other major churches of this period include the Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (1045-1052), the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior in Chernigov (1031-1050s), and the Cathedral of the Dormition at the Kiev Cave Monastery (1073-1078; destroyed in 1941).
Regardless of size, the churches adhered to a plan known as the “inscribed cross”: a cuboid structure with a dome marking the intersection of the main aisles. The dome was elevated on a cylinder supported by the four main piers. The facades usually culminated in curved gables known as zakomary.
In addition to Kiev, Novgorod, and neighboring cities, the third center of architecture in pre-Mongol Rus was the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, whose limestone churches were distinguished by carved decoration and precision of design. Grand Prince Yury Dolgoruky commissioned the first of these churches, such as the Transfiguration in Pereslavl-Zalessky (1152-1157). His son Andrei Bogolyubsky began the great era of limestone building in this area with the Cathedral of the Dor-mition in Vladimir (1158-1160); his palace church at Bogolyubovo (1158-1165) of which only fragments remain; and the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165). His successor, Vsevolod III, enlarged the Dormition Cathedral (1185-1189) and built the Cathedral of St. Dmitry in Vladimir (1194-1197), whose upper tier is covered with elaborate carving representing Biblical and secular motifs.
After the Mongol invasion of 1237-1241, church construction sharply declined; but by the middle of the fourteenth century, masonry construction revived, particularly in Novgorod, with the support of wealthy merchants and neighborhood craft guilds. The Church of St. Theodore Stratilates on the Brook (1360-1361) and the Church of Transfiguration on Elijah Street (1374; frescoes by Theophanes the Greek) exemplified a distinct local style with steeply pitched roofs. Moscow also enjoyed an architectural revival in the construction of limestone churches, but not until the last quarter of the fifteenth century did the major churches of the Kremlin take shape under the direction of Italian masters imported by Ivan III.
During the sixteenth century, Moscow’s brick churches displayed boldly inventive designs, also with Italian influence. The culmination of this period occurs in the most famous of Russian churches, the Intercession on the Moat, popularly known as Basil the Blessed (1555-1561). Built on what later became known as Red Square, in celebration of Ivan IV’s conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan, the structure consists of a central tent tower surrounded by eight tower churches. The latter part of the sixteenth century also witnessed the building of major brick fortresses, most notably the citadel at Smolensk (1595-1602) by Fyodor Kon. With the restoration of order after the Time of Troubles (1605-1612), the building of brick churches occurred on an unprecedented scale, especially during the reign of Alexei (1645-1676).
