The Day We Lost the H-Bomb

proposed canceling the program. The Joint Chiefs of Staff and SAC objected to McNamara’s plan. Eventually, the two sides compromised. In June 1966, President Johnson approved a curtailed program, allowing only four nuclear- armed bombers on airborne alert each day. It was one of these bombers that crashed in Greenland.

After the Thule accident, McNamara had had enough. He ordered SAC to stop carrying nuclear weapons on airborne alert. Within a day, the weapons had been removed. SAC continued to fly the missions with unarmed bombers, buying time as it continued to lobby for airborne alert. Its arguments, however, failed to persuade civilian authorities, who were tired of cleaning up diplomatic messes left by SAC’s accidents. The program was canceled by the end of 1968.

The Strategic Air Command, the most powerful military force ever built, gradually diminished in power as the Navy and Army gained more nuclear weapons and the need for conventional weaponry increased. In 1992, after the fall of the Soviet Union, the U.S. government closed down SAC, divvying up its resources among other commands. Even then, with the USSR disintegrated into fifteen separate countries, SAC veterans were shocked by the decision. In their view, SAC remained the key deterrent of nuclear war; it was impossible to imagine the world without it. One pilot said he couldn’t sleep for days, sure that the Russians were simply lying in wait to attack America the moment she let her guard down.

In 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced that the Russian air force would begin regular long- range bomber patrols over the world’s oceans. The Russian bombers are capable of carrying nuclear weapons, but Putin did not say whether the flights would be armed. In August of that year, Russian bombers flew so near the American military base on Guam that the United States scrambled fighter jets to shadow them. The American fighters flew so close to the Russians that the pilots could see one another’s faces. According to Russian authorities, there was no altercation. The pilots smiled at one another and then went their separate ways.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Writing this book has been like building Mount Everest with pebbles. Since 2002, I have gathered tidbits of information here and there as the story slowly took shape and the main characters emerged from the fog. Along the way, I interviewed close to a hundred people, read countless documents, and spent innumerable hours in libraries and archives. I received valuable support and advice from many people, both military and civilian, and would like to acknowledge some key players here.

Several characters in the book were also invaluable in my research. Joe Ramirez and his wife, Sylvia, sat for hours of interviews, shared personal notes and photographs, and told me where to stay in Madrid. Mike Rooney, Charlie Wendorf, and Larry Messinger, the three pilots who survived the crash, shared their stories during several interviews. Brad Mooney gave me time, stories, and good humor. Red Moody sat for hours of interviews, shared his life story, answered endless questions and e-mails, and wouldn’t let me pay for lunch. Bill Barton answered countless questions over four years. Lewis Melson, one of the first people I interviewed, loaned me photos and personal letters.

Art Markel kindly took the time for a long interview and a tour of the Aluminaut, despite his advanced illness.

Within the Navy, Lieutenant Lesley Lykins and Lieutenant Commander Leslie Hull-Ryde helped arrange research trips. Lieutenant Mike Morley at Rota floored me with his organizational abilities.

Bobbi Petrillo at NAVSEA worked on my FOIA requests for years and sometimes sent informal notes with advice and encouragement. Ed Finney, Jr., was an enthusiastic and helpful photo archivist at the Naval Historical Center. Matt Staden, Gary Weir, and John Sherwood helped me find documents at the Naval Historical Center. Tom Lapuzza at SPAWAR illuminated the story of CURV.

Lieutenant Commander Brad Andros, Master Diver Ron Ervin, Commander Miguel Gutierrez, and the divers of EOD 6 allowed me to observe their training and learn what makes divers tick.

In the Air Force, Sid Girardin at Pease Air Force Base arranged for me to fly on a KC-135, observe a midair refueling, and speak with SAC veterans. The staff at Minot Air Force Base allowed me to tour a B-52 and interview pilots. Joe Caver at AFHRA and Ann Webb at the Air University Library helped me find documents to flesh out the history of SAC.

On the civilian side, Shelley Dawicki, Rosemary Davis, and Lisa Raymond helped me find documents at WHOI. Liz Caporelli, Bob Brown, and Bruce Strickrott, also at WHOI, arranged my visit to Alvin and took time to give me an extensive tour. Zach Elder at Duke University was a great help with the Angier Biddle Duke papers, and Myra O’Canna was a great help with photos. Becky Kenny, David Hoover, and Sam Bono at the National Atomic Museum helped with archives and interview space, and were very gracious during my two visits. David Hahn and Nancy Tait at the Science Museum of Virginia helped me uncover a treasure trove of Aluminaut documents in a dusty storeroom.

The staff of the LBJ Library, the National Archives at College Park, Maryland, and the MIT

Libraries were patient and knowledgeable. Randall Bergmann at DTIC tracked down the TF 65 final report. At Sandia and the NNSA, Terry Apodaca and Stefani Holinka helped push my FOIA requests through the system. Francis Smith shared stories of life on the Albany and the best brisket in Austin.

In Spain, Anouschka Orueta, my translator, gave me insights into her country. Her work went well beyond the call of duty. Jose Herrera Plaza generously opened his home and his files, gave me his time, and fed me well. And in Boston, the very patient Joe Federico tutored me in Spanish.

A number of scholars and historians took time to share their knowledge and research. Jerry Martin, the USSTRATCOM historian, gave insight on strategic bombing, the mighty hammer of SAC, and many other things. He kindly reviewed chapter 1 and offered comments. Scott Sagan of Stanford University shared research gathered for his book The Limits of Safety. Edwin Moise of Clemson shared his knowledge and insights into the Tonkin Gulf incidents. Richard Rhodes offered leads and SAC stories. Andy Karam, a health physicist at the Rochester Institute of Technology, explained nuclear fusion and alpha radiation and generously reviewed certain technical sections of this book.

I also owe a great debt to Flora Lewis and Tad Szulc, two newspaper reporters who published books about the accident in 1967. These two books, One of Our H-Bombs Is Missing (Lewis) and The Bombs of Palomares (Szulc), offer clear, straightforward reporting, with details of Palomares in 1966 and the immediate aftermath of the crash. These accounts were especially valuable because the town of Palomares today bears little resemblance to the town in this story and several key characters are deceased. Thus, occasionally I relied heavily on one of these two books. In those instances I either quoted them outright or cited their contribution in the endnotes.

Closer to home, I’d like to thank Doug Starr, who taught me well and saw promise in this story, and Ellen Ruppel Shell, who told me to swim at Mojacar. Johanna Kovitz, my transcriber, offered lots of enthusiasm and news tips. Karen Rowan and John Ost provided excellent research assistance. Carey Goldberg helped with the Lotsman and other things Russian. Jon Palfreman funded a research trip to Florida to interview Mac McCamis and Larry Messinger. Fred Schwarz, my editor at Invention

&Technology, suggested I turn this story into a book. Jonathan Jao, my editor at Random House, gave me wonderful edits and made my first draft much better. Without his help, the book would have sunk under the weight of chapter 8. My agent, Michelle Tessler, offered encouragement and advice, and worked hard to get this story noticed. Shannon Densmore and my sister Patty were great friends throughout, especially after Finny was born. And my friend Steven Bedard read early drafts of this book for a measly payment of sardines. If I had the means, I would offer him a ride on the Trieste.

Finally, I want to thank my husband, Brian, who always believed in me and this story. Over the past six years, he has listened to endless stories of Alvin and H-bombs, read many drafts of this book, helped me drive in Spain, and offered other assistance, large and small. I owe him more than I can say.

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