coins sewn on a leather vest; the wood, steel, and leather armor of the Koryak tribe of western Siberia; the leather and wood armor of the Chukchi people of eastern Siberia; the armor of the Lolo barbarians of southeastern China; and the armor of the Gilbert Islanders of the South Pacific, consisting of coconut fibers and fish skin. Corselets made of many layers of linen have been worn in many places, including ancient Greece. Leather armor has also been popular. One of the earliest depictions of armor is on the “Royal Standard of Ur,” a box covered with figures carved from shell and limestone, found in the royal cemetery of the ancient Sumerian city of Ur. It shows a phalanx of warriors wearing copper helmets and long leather cloaks covered with metal disks.
Armor, a defensive weapon, varies with the weapons it is intended to defend against. The thick layers of cord worn by the Gilbert Islanders would not have stopped a steel lance head, but they did deaden the impact of sling stones, one of the islanders’ principle offensive weapons. The Gilbert Islanders specialized in mobile missile warfare. They’d run up to stone-throwing range, fire their sling stones, run away, and attack again. To guard against enemy sling stones when they were retreating, their armor had a tall square piece behind the head, rising well above a fish skin helmet. The ancient Celts invented mail — armor composed of thousands of interlocking rings. Mail was more flexible than most armors, and it protected the wearer very well against sword cuts. It was less protective against thrusts with a sharply pointed sword, but Celtic warriors usually relied on the edge of the sword, rather than the point. Roman soldiers were taught to use the points of their short swords; “duas uncias in puncto mortalis est” (“two inches in the right place is fatal”) was a motto of the legionaries. That was one of the reasons the Romans conquered the Gauls. The barbarian tribes that overran the Roman Empire, however, were slashers, so mail became the uniform of European knights. The knights usually wore their mail over a padded garment called an aketon to soften the impact of blows. A stroke that could not penetrate the mail could still break a bone. During the crusades, Christian soldiers sometimes wore a jacket of felt over their armor. It must have been stifling in sunny Palestine, but its wearers thought its advantages outweighed its discomfort. Beha ed-Din Ibn Shedad, one of Saladin’s officers, wrote: “I have seen soldiers with up to 21 arrows stuck in their bodies marching no less easily for that.”
Slashing with the sword is a more instinctive action than thrusting, so mail became popular far from its Celtic homeland. The Arabs, Persians, and Indians adopted it early, but some of them also added small metal plates to the mail that would stop a sword or spear thrust. Warriors of such West African kingdoms as Bornu, Mali, and Songhai also wore mail. Mail-wearers in such hot places as Africa and Arabia covered their armor with cloth robes to keep the sun off the metal and keep from turning a suit of armor into an oven capable of literally burning flesh. European warriors who went on crusade adopted the surcoat from their enemies and brought it back to Europe. There, European knights found the surcoat ideal for displaying their heraldic arms.
The ancient Greeks favored bronze armor because bronze could be melted and cast in large pieces. No European furnaces at that time were hot enough to melt iron. Iron was extracted from the ore by a laborious process of heating and beating, and the smith was left with small pieces that had to be welded together to make a piece as large as a sword blade. So for centuries, iron armor was composed of small pieces. Mail, made of rings formed from bits of iron wire, was one example. Scale armor (overlapping bits of metal fastened to fabric or leather and arranged like the scales of a fish) was another. And yet another example was lamellar armor (bits of metal fastened to each other with cords or wires). Japanese armor is probably the type of lamellar armor most familiar to Americans, but the type was also extremely popular in Persia, Central Asia, and India. The Romans used a wide variety of armor, including solid breast plates and back plates of bronze, mail, scale, and a type with overlapping strips of iron called the lorica segmentata. In the later Middle Ages, when the crossbow began to make life dangerous for mail-wearers, European knights began to cover their mail with a “coat of plates.” This was a vest of strong fabric with small, rectangular iron plates riveted to the inside of it. The plates were usually lined with another layer of fabric. A century or two later, a similar garment was used by infantrymen, usually as their sole armor except for the helmet. It was called
“brigandine.” People at that time, during the Hundred Years War with its rapa-cious mercenary bands, saw little difference between infantrymen and brigands.
European smiths became more and more skilled in metal working and were able to produce large pieces of mild steel by the 14th century. That was fortunate for the knights, because they were just beginning to face three new missile weapons: the longbow, the crossbow with a steel bow that had a draw weight of more than a 1,000 pounds, and the handgun. Plate armor could be made proof against these weapons. In fact, the word proof comes from the practice of firing a crossbow or a gun at a finished breast plate. If the shot did not penetrate, it proved that the armor was safe. But guns got more powerful. Armor got heavier, but it finally got so heavy it interfered with fighting. It began to disappear. Leg armor was replaced by heavy “jack boots,” thick leather boots that covered the thighs, and by the 17th century much of the upper body armor was replaced by a “buff coat,” a coat of heavy buffalo leather that was worn under a steel corselet. Sometimes it was worn instead of the corselet.
All of the preceding refers to armor that was worn like clothing. But for most of the same period, the most effective piece of armor was not worn but carried: the shield. At close range, the arrow from a longbow will penetrate a breast plate of the type worn in the 15th century. It may not pass all the way through, but if only half of it got through, half of a 28-inch arrow is more than enough to kill the man wearing the breastplate. If the arrow hits a shield and has the same effect, it might not even reach the body of the shield-holder. Even if it did, after passing through the shield, it wouldn’t have enough power to penetrate any kind of armor.
The shield was so important in classical Greece that the heavy infantryman, the hoplite, took his name from the word for shield, hoplon. For a hoplite to lose his shield was the ultimate disgrace. European knights carried shields until plate armor was developed so heavy it could resist a lance thrust by itself. The Saxon “shield wall” at Hastings turned back the Norman knights for most of the day. Archers and crossbowmen could not hang shields on their arms for obvious reasons, but they had substitutes. Some crossbowmen carried large shields on their backs. When loading their weapons, they turned their backs to the enemy. That was a less than satisfactory alternative, because a shield on the back was too close to the body. A better substitute was the pavises, a large shield propped up on the ground. Both archers and crossbowmen used pavises.
Shields were such such effective pieces of equipment that they were the only armor that has been used by many nations. The Highlanders of Scotland, the Zulus of South Africa, and the Plains Indians of North America, as well as hundreds of peoples between them, used no armor but the shield. The Spanish infantry swordsmen of the 16th century had shields that were proof against pistol shots.
From the late Middle Ages into the early modern period, a type of shield was frequently worn by civilians. In an era when every male with pretensions to manhood wore a sword, the more aggressive types hung small round shields on the hilts of their swords. This type of shield, called a buckler, was held in the left hand of a right-handed swordsman and used to parry an opponent’s sword strokes. People wearing a buckler on their swords were presumed to be looking for a fight and called “swashbucklers.”
Armor did not entirely disappear with the advent of gunpowder. Some French cavalrymen were still wearing breastplate and metal helmets in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and British horsemen of the same period and later wore mail epaulets. In the American Civil War, many soldiers privately purchased “bullet-proof” steel vests to wear under their uniforms. Some of these actually worked. In the 1880s, Wyatt Earp wore one and it was said to have saved his life on at least one occasion.
World War I saw a revival of officially issued armor. The most widespread item was the steel helmet, which was designed to protect soldiers in the trenches from overhead shrapnel bursts. The Germans issued special armor to many of their machine gunners and some snipers. It consisted of a steel corselet and a helmet that covered the entire head except the eyes.
In World War II, the crews of bombers often wore “flak vests” as protection from the fragments of bursting anti-aircraft shells. Infantry were given armor vests made of nylon in the later stages of the Korean War. These vests would stop shell fragments and bullets from a .45 caliber pistol, but not bullets from any service rifle. They continued to be used in the Vietnam War. Body armor has continued to improve. In the Iraq War, combat soldiers have helmets of Kevlar, a synthetic material that is lighter and stronger than steel, and armor vests of the same material. The Kevlar “soft armor” vests have pockets that contain “hard armor” plates of metal, ceramic, or plastic, which can resist penetration by most rifle bullets. The most generally-used forms of the new armor will stop bullets from the 7.62 ? 39 caliber Kalashnikov rifles. Some troops, particularly those on riot control, wear Kevlar greaves.
The modern infantryman is as thoroughly armored as a 17th-century pikeman.
