BIBLIOGRAPHY
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
PREFACE
—EDWARD BLYTH
FOR THE PAST QUARTER CENTURY I HAVE HAD THE MARVELOUS privilege of being able to work in the emerging field of cognitive neuroscience. This book is a distillation of a large chunk of my life’s work, which has been to unravel—strand by elusive strand—the mysterious connections between brain, mind, and body. In the chapters ahead I recount my investigations of various aspects of our inner mental life that we are naturally curious about. How do we perceive the world? What is the so-called mind-body connection? What determines your sexual identity? What is consciousness? What goes wrong in autism? How can we account for all of those mysterious faculties that are so quintessentially human, such as art, language, metaphor, creativity, self- awareness, and even religious sensibilities? As a scientist I am driven by an intense curiosity to learn how the brain of an ape—an ape!—managed to evolve such a godlike array of mental abilities.
My approach to these questions has been to study patients with damage or genetic quirks in different parts of their brains that produce bizarre effects on their minds or behavior. Over the years I have worked with hundreds of patients afflicted (though some feel they are blessed) with a great diversity of unusual and curious neurological disorders. For example, people who “see” musical tones or “taste” the textures of everything they touch, or the patient who experiences himself leaving his body and viewing it from above near the ceiling. In this book I describe what I have learned from these cases. Disorders like these are always baffling at first, but thanks to the magic of the scientific method we can render them comprehensible by doing the right experiments. In recounting each case I will take you through the same step-by-step reasoning—occasionally navigating the gaps with wild intuitive hunches—that I went through in my own mind as I puzzled over how to render it explicable. Often when a clinical mystery is solved, the explanation reveals something new about how the normal, healthy brain works, and yields unexpected insights into some of our most cherished mental faculties. I hope that you, the reader, will find these journeys as interesting as I did.
Readers who have assiduously followed my whole oeuvre over the years will recognize some of the case histories that I presented in my previous books,
The past two hundred years saw breathtaking progress in many areas of science. In physics, just when the late nineteenth-century intelligentsia were declaring that physical theory was all but complete, Einstein showed us that space and time were infinitely stranger than anything formerly dreamed of in our philosophy, and Heisenberg pointed out that at the subatomic level even our most basic notions of cause and effect break down. As soon as we moved past our dismay, we were rewarded by the revelation of black holes, quantum entanglement, and a hundred other mysteries that will keep stoking our sense of wonder for centuries to come. Who would have thought the universe is made up of strings vibrating in tune with “God’s music”? Similar lists can be made for discoveries in other fields. Cosmology gave us the expanding universe, dark matter, and jaw-dropping vistas of endless billions of galaxies. Chemistry explained the world using the periodic table of the elements and gave us plastics and a cornucopia of wonder drugs. Mathematics gave us computers—although many “pure” mathematicians would rather not see their discipline sullied by such practical uses. In biology, the anatomy and physiology of the body were worked out in exquisite detail, and the mechanisms that drive evolution finally started to become clear. Diseases that had literally plagued humankind since the dawn of history were at last understood for what they really were (as opposed to, say, acts of witchcraft or divine retribution). Revolutions occurred in surgery, pharmacology, and public health, and human life spans in the developed world doubled in the space of just four or five generations. The ultimate revolution was the deciphering of the genetic code in the 1950s, which marks the birth of modern biology.
By comparison, the sciences of the mind—psychiatry, neurology, psychology—languished for centuries. Indeed, until the last quarter of the twentieth century, rigorous theories of perception, emotion, cognition, and intelligence were nowhere to be found (one notable exception being color vision). For most of the twentieth century, all we had to offer in the way of explaining human behavior was two theoretical edifices—Freudianism and behaviorism—both of which would be dramatically eclipsed in the 1980s and 1990s, when neuroscience finally managed to advance beyond the Bronze Age. In historical terms that isn’t a very long time. Compared with physics and chemistry, neuroscience is still a young upstart. But progress is progress, and what a period of progress it has been! From genes to cells to circuits to cognition, the depth and breadth of today’s neuroscience—however far short of an eventual Grand Unified Theory it may be—is light-years beyond where it was when I started working in the field. In the last decade we have even seen neuroscience becoming self-confident enough to start offering ideas to disciplines that have traditionally been claimed by the humanities. So we now for instance have neuroeconomics, neuromarketing, neuroarchitecture, neuroarcheology, neurolaw, neuropolitics, neuroesthetics (see Chapters 4 and 8), and even neurotheology. Some of these are just neurohype, but on the whole they are making real and much- needed contributions to many fields.
As heady as our progress has been, we need to stay completely honest with ourselves and acknowledge that we have only discovered a tiny fraction of what there is to know about the human brain. But the modest amount that we have discovered makes for a story more exciting than any Sherlock Holmes novel. I feel certain that as progress continues through the coming decades, the conceptual twists and technological turns we are in for are going to be at least as mind bending, at least as intuition shaking, and as simultaneously humbling and exalting to the human spirit as the conceptual revolutions that upended classical physics a century ago. The adage that fact is stranger than fiction seems to be especially true for the workings of the brain. In this book I hope I can convey at least some of the wonder and awe that my colleagues and I have felt over the years as we have patiently peeled back the layers of the mind-brain mystery. Hopefully it will kindle your interest in what the pioneering neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield called “the organ of destiny” and Woody Allen, in a less reverential mood, referred to as man’s “second favorite organ.”
Overview
Although this book covers a wide spectrum of topics, you will notice a few important themes running through all of them. One is that humans are truly unique and special, not “just” another species of primate. I still find it a little bit surprising that this position needs as much defense as it does—and not just against the ravings of antievolutionists, but against no small number of my colleagues who seem comfortable stating that we are “just apes” in a casual, dismissive tone that seems to revel in our lowliness. I sometimes wonder: Is this perhaps the secular humanists’ version of original sin?
Another common thread is a pervasive evolutionary perspective. It is impossible to understand how the brain
