with a high ratio. The ideal figure was the one with the lowest ratio, not the one with the thinnest torso.
Singh ' s interest is in anorexics, bulimics, and women obsessed with losing weight even when thin: He believes that because dieting in fairly thin women has no effect on the waist-to-hip ratio—if anything, it makes it larger by shrinking the hips—
they are doomed never to feel more attractive.
Why does the waist-to-hip ratio matter? Singh observes that a 'gynoid' fat distribution—more fat on the hips, less on the torso—is necessary for the hormonal changes associated with female fertility: An ' android ' fat distribution—fat on the belly, thin hips—is associated with the symptoms of male disabilities such as heart disease, even in women. But which is cause and which effect? It seems to me more likely that both the shape and the hormonal effects of it are sexually selected by generations of males rather than males preferring the shape because it is the only way the hormones can be made to work. The relatively brief period during which women have hourglass bodies—from fifteen to thirty-five, say—is a sexually selected phenomenon: It owes more to competition to attract men than to any other biological need. Men have been unconsciously acting as selective breeders of women.
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Low provides one possible reason for the male preference for a low ratio—choosing broad-hipped women more able to give birth: Most apes give birth to babies whose brain is half-grown; human babies' brains are one-third grown at birth, and they spend far less time in the womb than is normal for a mammal, given the longevity of man: The reason is obvious: Were the hole in the pelvis through which we are born (the birth canal) commensurately larger, our mothers would be unable to walk at all: The width of human hips reached a certain point and could go no further; as brains continued to grow bigger, earlier birth was the only option left to the species: Imagine the evolutionary pressure of this process on female hip size. It was always wise for a man to choose the biggest-hipped woman he could find, generation after generation, for millions of years. At a certain point hips could get no bigger but men still had the preference, so women with slender waists who appeared to have larger hips by contrast were preferred instead:'
I do not know if I believe this tale or not: I cannot find the logical flaw in it (though on first reading there will seem to be many), nor can I quite match it to the male passion for thinness: I also have a nagging doubt about our assumptions that fashions have changed in the admiration of thinness: Suppose our assumptions are at fault, as in the story of the king and the goldfish: Suppose men always preferred slim women to fat ones because slimness meant youth and virginity. After all, as every cosmetic company and plastic surgeon knows, youth has always been the most reliable key to beauty. Perhaps men do not use slimness as a clue to status or childbearing ability but to youth.
YOUTH EQUALS BEAUTY?
A man cannot tell the age of a woman directly: He must infer it from her physical appearance, her behavior, and her reputation: It is intriguing to note that many of the most noticed features of female beauty decay rapidly with age: unblemished skin, full lips, clear eyes,
upright breasts, narrow waists, slender legs, even blond hair, which, without chemical intervention, rarely lasts beyond the twenties except among the most Viking of people. These things are, in the sense developed in chapter 5, honest handicaps: They tell a tale of age that cannot be easily disguised without surgery, makeup, or veils.
That blond hair :on a woman has been considered by Europeans more beautiful than brown or black has long been noted: In ancient Rome women dyed their hair blond. In medieval Italy fair hair and great beauty were inseparable. In Britain the words fair and beautiful were synonymous. Z° Blond adult hair may be a sexually selected honest handicap, just like a swallow 's tail streamers. Blond hair in children is a fairly common gene among Europeans (and, curiously, Australian aborigines). So when a mutation arose in the not-so-distant past, somewhere near Stockholm, say, for that blondness to last into adulthood but not beyond the early twenties, any men with a genetic preference for blond women would have found themselves marrying only young women, which—in a heavily clothed civilization—others might not have done. They would therefore have left more descendants, and a preference for blond hair would have spread: This in turn would have increased the spread of the trait itself because it was indeed an honest indicator of female reproductive value. Hence, gentlemen prefer blondes!'
Of course, the part about the male genetic preference is optional or, if you like, a parable: It is more probable that the preference for blond hair among northern European men, if it exists, is a cultural trait instilled in them unconsciously by the association between blondness and youth—an association, incidentally, that the cosmetic industry is rapidly undermining. But the effect is the same: a genetic change brought about by a sexual preference. The alternative theory is to suggest some natural reason for blond hair 's being advantageous—for example, that it goes with fair skin, and fair skin allows the absorption of ultraviolet light to help stave off vitamin D deficiency. But the skin is not much fairer in blond than in dark Swedes; truly fair skin goes with red hair, not blond.
Until recently, sexual selection was an argument of last resort, when appeals to natural selection by the 'environment ' had THE USES OF BEAUTY
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failed: But why should it be? Why is it more plausible to suggest that blond hair in Baltic people was selected by vitamin D deficiency than to suggest it was selected by sexual preferences? The evidence is beginning to accumulate that humanity is a highly sexually selected species and that this explains the great variations between races in hairiness, nose length, hair length, hair curliness, beards, eye color—variations that plainly have little to do with climate or any other physical factor. In the common pheasant, every one of forty-six isolated wild populations in central Asia has a different combination of male plumage ornaments: white collars, green heads, blue rumps, orange breasts. Likewise, in mankind, sexual selection is at work. 22
The male obsession with youth is characteristically human.
There is no other animal
THE LEGS THAT LAUNCHED A THOUSAND SHIPS
That many of the components of female beauty are clues to age, every woman and every cosmetic company well knows. But there is more to beauty than youth. The reasons that many youthful women are not beautiful are generally twofold: They are overweight or underweight, or their facial features do not fit our image of beauty.
