down to Theodora. Unwilling to offend the staunchly Orthodox clergy and people of Italy (and thus weaken his position as Pope), he procrastinated endlessly about implementing her wishes. The impasse was eventually overtaken by events of a catastrophic nature — as will be seen in later chapters.
While sharks that are dangerous to man are mostly encountered in tropical waters, they are, or were until recently, not uncommon in the Mediterranean — including the fearsome Great White Shark (which actually prefers temperate seas to warm ones). This species tends to cruise in shallow water near the coast, which of course would have put Silverius in danger as he approached the shore. Shark attacks in the Mediterranean on humans have been recorded from Ancient Greek times onwards.
Chapter 20
This enormous structure — 2,000 feet in length — can still be seen, as can a triumphal arch erected for the same emperor.
In fact, John refused to evacuate Rimini when ordered to do so by Belisarius. This flagrant act of disobedience received the backing of Narses, who proceeded to tell Belisarius to relieve the town — thus adding insult to injury!
Prior to Constantine under whom Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, emperors, on dying, were deemed to become gods, acquiring thereby the title ‘
The clash between the two generals (arising from the extraordinary rider to his commission which enabled Narses to outrank Belisarius whenever he felt it appropriate to do so) created a poisonous atmosphere of acrimony and dissent, which at times virtually paralyzed the progress of the war, and was directly responsible for the failure to relieve Milan.
Displaying a failure of nerve that was not untypical, Justinian ordered Belisarius to abandon the siege of Ravenna (which the emperor had been led to believe was virtually impregnable) and make the best terms he could with the Goths — in case troops had to be diverted to the east in the event of Persian aggression. Italy would then be divided between the Romans, who would retain the land south of the Po, and the Goths, who would keep the rest — mainly consisting of their heartland, the Plain of Lombardy. Belisarius however, was made of sterner stuff than his emperor. Ignoring the order, he pretended to agree with a secret proposal of the Goths that he become Western emperor in return for a power-sharing deal with them. He was then allowed to enter Ravenna with his army, whereupon the Goths surrendered — only to discover that they had been tricked. Belisarius, who had no intention of honouring the deal, informed the Gothic leaders that he was occupying Ravenna in Justinian’s name and that the Ostrogothic kingdom was no more. (Gibbon suggests that Ravenna was captured late in 539, rather than 540 — the year most sources give.)
The population of Milan — then as now Italy’s second city — has been estimated to number c. 500,000 at the time. Displaying his usual common sense, Gibbon (in contrast to most historians) is highly sceptical about the notion of total genocide and destruction being visited on a conurbation of this magnitude. He suggests that dividing the
After a lapse of several years, a consul, Basilius, was elected for the year 540. His diptych shows him in his consular robes, beside him — hand on his shoulder — an allegorical figure of Rome. Basilius wears a most apprehensive expression — caused by worry about the colossal expense of throwing his consular Games, or concern regarding the imminent demise of the office he represents? He was in fact to be the very last consul. (
Justinian is referring to the famous incident — one of the most important single events in the history of Christianity, when Constantine, about to do battle with his rival Maxentius for mastery of the Roman Empire, beheld in the sky a cross (cloud formation?) — the emblem of the hitherto persecuted Christian sect. Interpreting the vision as a sign from God, he instructed his soldiers to paint the symbol on their shields. In the ensuing battle at the Milvian Bridge (still in use) outside Rome in 312, Constantine was victorious and the rest, as they say, is history. .
For dramatic reasons, I have deferred Khusro’s invasion of Syria until Chapter 21, so as not to spoil Justinian’s moment of triumph on hearing the news of the capture of Ravenna — which must have seemed to bring the Gothic War to a glorious conclusion. In fact, according to most sources, the news arriving in Constantinople of Khusro’s ‘putsch’ preceded — just — the tidings that Ravenna had fallen (March and May 540 respectively). If, however, we accept Gibbon’s argument that Ravenna in fact fell in late 539 rather than in early 540, then the order of events as I’ve presented them can stand. (See Gibbon’s footnote on the capture of Ravenna in Chapter 41 of his
Elsewhere in Chapter 20, in order to present a reasonably coherent picture from the shifting pattern of sieges, blockades, reliefs, reductions and ‘pushes’ which constitute the main strategic events in Italy for the years 538–540 (a crucially important period in the first phase of the Gothic War), I have gone in for some pruning and telescoping without, I trust, distorting the essential facts.
Chapter 21
If we broaden the term ‘Rome’ to ‘the Greeks and Romans’, and ‘Persia’ to include successively: the empire begun by Cyrus in 537 BC, the Parthian state which lasted from 246 BC to AD 218, and its successor the Sassanian Empire, then, by the reign of Justinian, the Graeco-Roman world had been at war with Persia for over a thousand years — allowing for an interregnum (329–246 BC) when the country had come under the sway of Alexander and his successors. For a time — in the 610s and 20s — it looked as if Persia might overrun the East Roman state, but in 628 the tables were turned decisively in Rome’s favour when the emperor Heraclius utterly crushed Khusro II. Then, just when it seemed that Rome had emerged the final victor. . (For the ‘Final Solution’ to the millenium-long struggle, see Afterword.)
In AD 260, the Roman emperor Valerian, along with his 70,000-strong army was captured by the Persians, who for many years displayed his skin as a grisly trophy of war.
This astonishing assertion was not without an element of justification. Near the end of Justin’s reign, when Khusro (the third and favourite son of the Great King, Kavad) was a young boy, plans (part of a diplomatic entente between Persia and Rome) were drawn up whereby young Khusro would be adopted by the childless Justin. The boy had actually started on the journey to Constantinople when — on the advice of hardliners, particularly the quaestor Proclus — the scheme was cancelled. Had it not been. . (It is fascinating to speculate what might have been the implications for the succession on Justin’s death, if the plan had been implemented.)
One of the most splendid cities of the ancient world, Antioch was founded c. 300 BC by Seleucus Nicator (in honour of his father Antiochus), one of Alexander’s generals. He began the Seleucid dynasty, whose territory included most of the eastern portion of Alexander’s empire.
