Pole clearly blamed Cromwell for leading Henry astray politically and religiously, and accused Cromwell of being a demon and a disciple of Machiavelli – it is not clear which was worse. But these are the historical details around the controversy. The outstanding issue is whether Cromwell could have read the book as early as 1527, the year Machiavelli died. Il Principe had not yet been printed in 1527: the first printed edition was in 1532, and the Latin edition was not available until the 1560s, long after Cromwell’s death. In The Mirror and the Light, Mantel suggests Cromwell was familiar with Machiavelli’s work prior to its publication, and that he even possessed a printed version – perhaps it was an illegal copy, possibly dictated by someone who had seen the original. Mantel also draws on correspondence between Cromwell and his friend Henry Parker, Lord Morley, Jane Rochford’s father, who was a respected courtier and translator. Morley sent Cromwell a copy of Machiavelli’s printed work in the late 1530s, and his letter suggests that Cromwell had not yet seen it. Surely Cromwell would have told the like-minded Morley that he had an unprinted version and shared it with him, for it was not deemed a heretical work in England. There is no historical evidence that shows Cromwell saw a copy of Il Principle in the 1520s, nor that Morley’s edition was the first to pass into Cromwell’s hands, but it is tempting to draw a line from Machiavelli’s political brilliance to that of Cromwell.
H
ANS
H
OLBEIN
(
THE
Y
OUNGER
)
I can, whenever I please, make seven lords of seven ploughmen, but I cannot make one Holbein of even seven Lords.
Henry VIII
There are many benchmarks to measure one’s ‘arrival’ at court; one is when you sit for Mr Holbein to have your portrait painted. The German-born Holbein spent several years training in Basel before journeying to England in search of work in 1526. Armed with credentials from the great scholar Erasmus, he sought out Thomas More, who gave him his first commission, thus launching Holbein’s career in England, where he spent most of his life. Holbein counted Cromwell among his patrons, as well as the Boleyns, for whom he designed jewellery and an exquisite cup for Anne complete with the falcon crest. By 1532 he was established as a royal painter, and his portraits for Henry VIII created the sense of majesty that exists today. He is responsible for some of the most iconic paintings of the period, including the now-lost Whitehall mural, The Ambassadors, and Cromwell’s rather unflattering portrait. In 1534, Mantel’s Cromwell appraises his face, forever inscrutable on canvas. In a conversation with his son he recalls that he once overheard a friend of George Boleyn’s say he looked like a murderer; he will proceed to ask everyone who views the portrait if they feel the same. Holbein would also paint the famous portrait of Anne of Cleves which so captivated Henry, but escaped any blame when Henry declared the portrait had deceived him. With the fall of Anne and Cromwell, Holbein lost two of his greatest benefactors, and returned to painting private commissions. He died in London, but his final resting place remains a mystery.
THE OATH OF SUCCESSION
Wolsey returns in 1534, a spectre shadowing Cromwell as he moves up in the world, speaking to his darkest fears:
Wolsey says, you know he will take the credit for your good ideas, and you the blame for his bad ones? When fortune turns against you, you will feel her lash: you always, he never.
Cromwell’s ascendency continued, being confirmed as Principal Secretary and Chief Minister, positions which he had already occupied unofficially for some time.
March and April of 1534 continued apace as Cromwell secured Henry’s first goal, the Act of Succession declaring Elizabeth legitimate and Mary illegitimate, which was passed by Parliament. Cromwell also visited Mary to inform her of her new status and her new position: she would now serve in the household of her half-sister, Elizabeth, whose very existence was the cause of her diminished status. Mantel’s Mary is like a little doll, somewhat confused and disoriented, unable to grasp the dramas around her. However, the real Mary Tudor was far more feisty and understood every attempt of Henry’s to weaken her status; she often sent Henry’s councillors scurrying from her rooms. Although Mary and Katherine still had their loyal supporters, Henry was determined to expunge them from his new life.
The Act had a sting in its tail: all subjects, if required, must swear an oath recognizing the Act as well as the king’s marriage to Anne Boleyn. Henry, Cromwell and Anne had two individuals in their sights whom this Act was designed to force into submission: Thomas More, who thus far had tried to keep out of the drama; and
