What’s the internal resistance of your lemon? Put aside the copper and zinc electrodes and insert your nickel-plated meter probes into the juice. I got a reading of around 30K when both probes were in the same segment of the lemon, but 40K or higher if the probes were in different segments. Is the resistance lower when you test liquid in a cup?
Here are a couple more questions that you may wish to investigate. For how long will your lemon battery generate electricity? And why do you think your zinc-plated electrode becomes discolored after it has been used for a while?
Electricity is generated in a battery by an exchange of ions, or free electrons, between metals. If you want to know more about this, check the section “Theory: The nature of electricity” on the previous page.
Cleanup and Recycling
The hardware that you immersed in lemons or lemon juice may be discolored, but it is reusable. Whether you eat the lemons is up to you.
Background
Positive and negative
If electricity is a flow of electrons, which have a negative charge, why do people talk as if electricity flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a battery?
The answer lies in a fundamental embarrassment in the history of research into electricity. For various reasons, when Benjamin Franklin was trying to understand the nature of electric current by studying phenomena such as lightning during thunderstorms, he believed he observed a flow of “electrical fluid” from positive to negative. He proposed this concept in 1747.
In fact, Franklin had made an unfortunate error that remained uncorrected until after physicist J. J. Thomson announced his discovery of the electron in 1897, 150 years later. Electricity actually flows from an area of greater negative charge, to some other location that is “less negative”—that is, “more positive.” In other words, electricity is a flow of negatively charged particles. In a battery, they originate from the negative terminal and flow to the positive terminal.
You might think that when this fact was established, everyone should have discarded Franklin’s idea of a flow from positive to negative. But when an electron moves through a wire, you can still think of an equal positive charge flowing in the opposite direction. When the electron leaves home, it takes a small negative charge with it; therefore, its home becomes a bit more positive. When the electron arrives at its destination, its negative charge makes the destination a bit less positive. This is pretty much what would happen if an imaginary positive particle traveled in the opposite direction. Moreover, all of the mathematics describing electrical behavior are still valid if you apply them to the imaginary flow of positive charges.
As a matter of tradition and convenience we still retain Ben Franklin’s erroneous concept of flow from positive to negative, because it really makes no difference. In the symbols that represent components such as diodes and transistors, you will actually find arrows reminding you which way these components should be placed—and the arrows all point from positive to negative, even though that’s not the way things really work at all! Ben Franklin would have been surprised to learn that although most lightning strikes occur when a negative charge in clouds discharges to neutralize a positive charge on the ground, some forms of lightning are actually a flow of electrons from the negatively charged surface of the earth, up to a positive charge in the clouds. That’s right: someone who is “struck by lightning” may be hurt by emitting electrons rather than by receiving them, as shown in Figure 1-75.
Figure 1-75. In some weather conditions, the flow of electrons during a lightning strike can be from the ground, through your feet, out of the top of your head, and up to the clouds. Benjamin Franklin would have been surprised.
Theory
Basic measurements
Electrical potential is measured by adding up the charges on individual electrons. The basic unit is the coulomb, equal to the total charge on about 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.
If you know how many electrons pass through a piece of wire each second, this establishes the flow of electricity, which can be expressed in amperes. In fact 1 ampere can be defined as 1 coulomb per second. Thus:
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
= about 6.25 quintillion electrons/second
There’s no way to “see” the number of electrons running through a conductor (Figure 1-76), but there are indirect ways of getting at this information. For instance, when an electron goes running through a wire, it creates a wave of electromagnetic force around it. This force can be measured, and we can calculate the amperage from that. The electric meter installed at your home by the utility company functions on this principle.
Figure 1-76. If you could look inside an electric wire with a sufficiently powerful magnifying device, and the wire happened to be carrying 1 ampere of electron flow at the time, you might hope to see about 6.25 quintillion electrons speeding past each second.
If electrons are just moving freely, they aren’t doing any work. If you had a loop of wire of zero resistance, and you kick-started a flow of electrons somehow, they could just go buzzing around forever. (This is what happens inside a superconductor—almost.)
Under everyday conditions, even a copper wire has some resistance. The force that we need to push electrons through it is known as “voltage,” and creates a flow that
