Mutual Aid

Mutual Aid

By Peter Kropotkin.

Table of Contents

1. Titlepage
2. Imprint
3. Introduction
4. Mutual Aid
   1. I: Mutual Aid Among Animals
   2. II: Mutual Aid Among Animals (Continued)
   3. III: Mutual Aid Among Savages
   4. IV: Mutual Aid Among the Barbarians
   5. V: Mutual Aid in the Medieval City
   6. VI: Mutual Aid in the Medieval City (Continued)
   7. VII: Mutual Aid Amongst Ourselves
   8. VIII: Mutual Aid Amongst Ourselves (Continued)
   9. Conclusion
5. Appendix
   1. I: Swarms of Butterflies, Dragonflies, etc.
   2. II: The Ants
   3. III: Nesting Associations
   4. IV: Sociability of Animals
   5. V: Checks to Over-Multiplication
   6. VI: Adaptations to Avoid Competition
   7. VII: The Origin of the Family
   8. VIII: Destruction of Private Property on the Grave
   9. IX: The “Undivided Family”
   10. X: The Origin of the Guilds
   11. XI: The Market and the Medieval City
   12. XII: Mutual-Aid Arrangements in the Villages of Netherlands at the Present Day
6. Endnotes
7. Colophon
8. Uncopyright

Imprint

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Introduction

Two aspects of animal life impressed me most during the journeys which I made in my youth in Eastern Siberia and Northern Manchuria. One of them was the extreme severity of the struggle for existence which most species of animals have to carry on against an inclement Nature; the enormous destruction of life which periodically results from natural agencies; and the consequent paucity of life over the vast territory which fell under my observation. And the other was, that even in those few spots where animal life teemed in abundance, I failed to find⁠—although I was eagerly looking for it⁠—that bitter struggle for the means of existence, among animals belonging to the same species, which was considered by most Darwinists (though not always by Darwin himself) as the dominant characteristic of struggle for life, and the main factor of evolution.

The terrible snowstorms which sweep over the northern portion of Eurasia in the later part of the winter, and the glazed frost that often follows them; the frosts and the snowstorms which return every year in the second half of May, when the trees are already in full blossom and insect life swarms everywhere; the early frosts and, occasionally, the heavy snowfalls in July and August, which suddenly destroy myriads of insects, as well as the second broods of the birds in the prairies; the torrential rains, due to the monsoons, which fall in more temperate regions in August and September⁠—resulting in inundations on a scale which is only known in America and in Eastern Asia, and swamping, on the plateaus, areas as wide as European States; and finally, the heavy snowfalls, early in October, which eventually render a territory as large as France and Germany, absolutely impracticable for ruminants, and destroy them by the thousand⁠—these were the conditions under which I saw animal life struggling in Northern Asia. They made me realize at an early date the overwhelming importance in Nature of what Darwin described as “the natural checks to over-multiplication,” in comparison to the struggle between individuals of the same species for the means of subsistence, which may go on here and there, to some limited extent, but never attains the importance of the former. Paucity of life, under-population⁠—not overpopulation⁠—being the distinctive feature of that immense part of the globe which we name Northern Asia, I conceived since then serious doubts⁠—which subsequent study has only confirmed⁠—as to the reality of that fearful competition for food and life within each species, which was an article of faith with most Darwinists, and, consequently, as to the dominant part which this sort of competition was supposed to play in the evolution of new species.

On the other hand, wherever I saw animal life in abundance, as, for instance, on the lakes where scores of species and millions of individuals came together to rear their progeny; in the colonies of rodents; in the migrations of birds which took place at that time on a truly American scale along the Usuri; and especially in a migration of fallow-deer which I witnessed on the Amur, and during which scores of thousands of these intelligent animals came together from an immense territory, flying before the coming deep snow, in order to cross the Amur where it is narrowest⁠—in all these scenes of animal life which passed before my eyes, I saw Mutual Aid and Mutual Support carried on to an extent which made me suspect in it a feature of the greatest importance for the maintenance of life, the preservation of each species, and its further evolution.

And finally, I saw among the semi-wild cattle and horses in Transbaikalia, among the wild ruminants everywhere, the squirrels, and so on, that when animals have to struggle against scarcity of food, in consequence of one of the above-mentioned causes, the whole of that portion of the species which is affected by the calamity, comes out of the ordeal so much impoverished in vigour and health, that no progressive evolution of the species can be based upon such periods of keen competition.

Consequently, when my attention was drawn, later on, to the relations