In April 1998 Chubais was appointed to serve as chief executive officer of the Russian power giant Unified Energy Systems (UES). Like his role in government, his way of running UES was surrounded by controversy, earning him much praise but also much criticism. See also: GORBACHEV, MIKHAIL SERGEYEVICH; LIBERALISM; PRIVATIZATION; YELTSIN, BORIS NIKOLAYEVICH
CHUKCHI
Aslund, Anders. (1995). How Russia Became a Market Economy. Washington, DC: Brookings. Wedel, Janine R. (1998). Collision and Collusion. New York: St. Martin’s.
(1900-1982), Marshal of the Soviet Union (1955), twice Hero of the Soviet Union, and Red Army commander renowned during World War II for his stoic and ruthless defense of Stalingrad and vital role in the capture of Berlin.
Josef Stalin routinely employed Vasily Chuikov as a “shock commander” in the most difficult sectors of the front. A regimental commander during the Russian civil war, Chuikov graduated from the Frunze Academy (1925) and the Red Army’s Academy of Motorization and Mechanization (1936).
Elevated to command the 9th Army after its notorious defeat during the Soviet-Finnish War (1939-1940), on Stalin’s orders Chuikov executed all commanders, commissars, and officers involved in the defeat. After serving as attach? to China (1939-1942), Chuikov commanded the 64th Army during the bitter fighting en route to Stalingrad and, later, the 62nd Army in its bloody and tenacious defense of the ruined city, for which his army earned the designation “8th Guards.” Chuikov commanded the Eighth Guards Army from 1943 through the war’s end, fighting in all major battles in the Ukraine and Poland, and spearheading the final Red Army drive on Berlin in April 1945. After the war Chuikov served successively as commander of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany, the Kiev Military District, and the Soviet Ground Forces; Deputy Minister of Defense of the USSR; and Chief of the USSR’s Civil Defense. After his retirement in 1972, Chuikov authored seven memoirs related to his military exploits. See also: WORLD WAR II
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chuikov, Vasily Ivanovich. (1985). The End of the Third Reich. Moscow: Progress. Woff, Richard. (1993). “Vasily Ivanovich Chuikov.” In Stalin’s Generals, ed. Harold Shukman. London: Wei-denfeld and Nicolson.
The Chukchi, one of Russia’s “Northern Peoples,” live in the northeast extreme of Russia. Most (80%) of the approximately fifteen thousand Chukchi live within the Chukchi Autonomous District; small numbers also reside in Sakha Republic (Yakutia) and Koryak Autonomous District. Historically, two general groups were recognized: inland and coastal Chukchi. Inland Chukchi herded domestic reindeer, amassing up to several thousands per (rich) family. Reindeer herding required a nomadic lifestyle: herders lived in tents and moved continuously to avoid pasture degradation. Men herded, hunted, and fished, while women gathered plant foods, sewed, cooked, and moved camp. The sociopolitical unit of the inland Chukchi was the herding camp, consisting of four to five families.
Coastal Chukchi depended on marine mammals for their subsistence, and lived in settled villages. Within villages whaling crews constituted important sociopolitical units. Coastal and inland Chukchi interacted, trading for desired products (e.g. marine mammal fat and hides, reindeer hides).
The Chukchi language is part of the Chukchi-Kamachatkan group of Paleo-Asiatic languages, and is most closely related to Koryak. Perhaps its most interesting attribute is the gender specific pronunciation: women replace the “r” sound with a “ts” sound. Animism characterized Chukchi cosmology. Both men and women served as shamans who mediated with the spirits who guided the animal world and other realms.
Nonnative people-Russian explorers and traders, followed by American traders-began to penetrate Chukchi space in the seventeenth century. The Russians claimed the territory but were unable to subdue it, due to fierce Chukchi resistance. Eventually (1778), the Tsarist government signed a peace treaty with the Chukchi. It was the Soviets who brought massive change, imposing new economic forms on the Chukchi, wresting decision making from them and attempting to settle the nomadic population. Some coastal villages were annihilated and their populations moved to larger centers. Meanwhile the Chukchi homeland underwent extensive mineral exploitation, accompanied by massive immigration. In 1930, natives constituted 96 percent of the population; by 1970 the number was reduced to 13 percent. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union and withdrawal of northern subsidies, many nonnatives have left. The Chukchi have established a local organization to
CHUKOVSKAYA, LYDIA KORNEYEVNA
fight for increased rights, and are attempting to revivify their traditional activities, but they are plagued by high levels of unemployment, high mortality, declining reindeer herds, antiwhaling campaigns, and a moribund local economy. See also: NATIONALITIES POLICIES, SOVIET; NATIONALITIES POLICIES, TSARIST; NORTHERN PEOPLES
Kerttula, Anna M. (2000). Antler on the Sea: The Yup’ik and Chukchi of the Russian Far East. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Krupnik, Igor. (1993). Arctic Adaptations: Native Whalers and Reindeer Herders of Northern Eurasia. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. Schweitzer, Peter P., Patty A., and Gray. (2000). “The Chukchi, and Siberian Yupiit of the Russian Far East.” In Endangered Peoples of the Arctic: Struggles to Survive and Thrive, ed. Milton M. Freeman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Akhmatova (Zapiski ob Anne Akhmatovoi), a two-volume account of their conversations. In 1960 she published a collection of essays on the art of editing entitled In the Editor’s Workshop (V laboratorii redaktora).
Over time, Chukovskaya became active in the dissident movement. Her efforts on behalf of Joseph Brodsky, Andrei Sinyavsky, Yuly Daniel, Andrei Sakharov, and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn led to her expulsion from the Union of Soviet Writers in 1974, which she chronicled in The Process of Expulsion (Protsess iskliucheniia).
During her final years, she eulogized her father in To the Memory of Childhood (Pamiati detstva) and established a museum at the Chukovsky dacha in Peredelkino, outside Moscow. See also: CHUKOVSKY, KORNEI IVANOVICH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Holmgren, Beth. (1993). Women’s Works in Stalin’s Time: On Lidiia Chukovskaia and Nadezhda Mandelstam. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
(1907-1996), novelist, editor, memoirist, dissident, daughter of writer and critic Kornei Chukovsky.
Born in St. Petersburg, Lydia Chukovskaya studied literature at the Institute of the History of Art. She worked as apprentice editor to Samuil Marshak at the children’s literature section of the Leningrad State Publishing House from 1927 until the section was shut down during the purges of the 1930s.
Chukovskaya became one of the most powerful writers to emerge from the Stalinist experience. Chukovskaya’s husband, Matvei Petrovich Bron-shtein, died in Stalin’s purges. Written clandestinely during the winter of 1939 to 1940 and finally published in the Soviet Union in 1988, Chukovskaya’s first novel, Sof’ia Petrovna, tells the story of a mother who loses her only son in the purges. Chukovskaya’s second novel, Going Under (Spusk pod vodu) similarly features a female protagonist traumatized by Stalinist repression.
Chukovskaya preserved and edited literary treasures. She saved some of Anna Akhmatova’s poems by committing them to memory. Chukov-skaya kept a journal of her meetings with her friend during the purges and published Notes on Anna
CHUKOVSKY, KORNEI IVANOVICH
(1882-1969); pseudonym of Nikolai Vasilievich Korneichukov; best known as author of children’s fairy tales
