(2001). The Russian Empire: A Multiethnic History. New York: Longman. Nekrich, A. M. (1978). The Punished Peoples: The Deportation and Fate of Soviet Minorities at the End of the Second World War. New York: Norton. Warhola, James W. (1996). Politicized Ethnicity in the Russian Federation: Dilemmas of State Formation. Lewiston, ME: Edwin Mellen Press.
(1883-1836), Bolshevik leader, Soviet state official, purged and executed under Stalin.
Born July 18, 1883, in Moscow and raised in Tbilisi, Lev Borisovich Rosenfeld entered the revolutionary movement while studying law at Moscow University. In 1901 he joined the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) and adopted the pseudonym Kamenev (“man of stone”). In 1903 the RSDLP split into two factions, and Kamenev aligned himself with the Bolsheviks and Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin). Kamenev’s revolutionary activities brought several arrests and brief periods of exile. During the 1905 Revolution, Kamenev proved an outstanding orator and organizer. In 1908 he joined Lenin’s inner circle in exile, then led the Bolshevik faction in Russia’s State Duma. In November 1914, tsarist police arrested Kamenev for endorsing Lenin’s “defeatist” position on the war and exiled him to Siberia.
The February 1917 Revolution brought Kamenev back to Petrograd. He initially rejected Lenin’s “April Thesis” and on the Bolshevik Central Committee (CC) opposed the idea of seizing power. Instead he endorsed an all- socialist coalition government. On October 23, 1917, the CC endorsed Lenin’s call for insurrection; Kamenev balked. He resigned from the CC on October 29, but rejoined it during the October Revolution and became chair of the Central Executive Committee of Soviets (CEC). Still he pursued an all-socialist coalition. Because the CC rejected these efforts, Kamenev again quit on November 17, 1917. He also resigned from the CEC, on November 21, 1917, after the Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom) issued decrees without CEC approval. Kamenev recanted on December 12, 1917, and rejoined the CC in March 1918.
Afterward, Kamenev held high-level government and Party positions, including chair of the Moscow Soviet (1919-January 1926), and memberships on the Sovnarkom (1922-1926), the Council of Labor and Defense (1922- 1926), the CC (1918-1926), and the Politburo (1919-1926). A “triumvirate” of Kamenev, Grigory Zinoviev, and Josef Stalin assumed tacit control of the Party and state in 1923, as Lenin lay dying, and engaged in a fierce campaign of mutual incrimination against Leon Trotsky over economic policy and bureau-cratization. By January 1925 the triumvirate had defeated Trotsky’s Left Opposition, but a rift emerged pitting Kamenev and Zinoviev against Stalin and the Politburo’s right wing. In December 1925, Kamenev criticized Stalin’s dictatorial tendencies at the Fourteenth Party Congress; this led to his condemnation as a member of the New Opposition. Demoted to candidate Politburo status, Kamenev was stripped of important state posts. In the spring of 1926, he and Zinoviev joined Trotsky in a United Opposition, criticizing the CC majority’s “pro-peasant” version of the New Economic Policy. The majority stripped him of Politburo membership in October 1926. The United Opposition continued in vain through 1927; the majority removed Kamenev from the CC on November 14, and the Party’s Fifteenth Congress expelled him on December 2, 1927. In ritual self-abnegation, he recanted and was readmitted to the Party in June 1928. He subsequently held minor posts, and faced the threat of arrest.
Kamenev was arrested, again expelled from the Party, and exiled to Siberia in October 1932, for purported association with Martemian Ryutin’s oppositionist group. Released, then readmitted to the Party in December 1933, he briefly served in Moscow bureaucratic publishing posts. On December 16, 1934, he was arrested once more, for alleged complicity in the murder of Sergei Kirov. At a January 16, 1935, secret trial he was falsely convicted for conspiring to kill Kirov and sentenced to five years imprisonment; an additional five-year sentence was added after a second secret trial in July 1935, for allegedly plotting to kill Stalin. In
KANDINSKY, VASSILY VASSILIEVICH
Lev Kamenev rose through the Bolshevik ranks to become a member of the Politburo, only to be later executed on Stalin’s orders. © BETTMANN/CORBIS July 1936, Kamenev conceded to Stalin’s demand for a public show trial. This August 1936 spectacle concluded with sixteen “Trotskyist-Zinovievist plotters” convicted on a range of fantastic charges, including spying for the Nazis. Despite Stalin’s promise to spare the lives of Old Bolsheviks, all were condemned to death. On August 24, 1936, Kamenev was executed alongside Zinoviev. See also: SHOW TRIALS; STALIN, JOSEF VISSARIONOVICH; ZINOVIEV, GRIGORY YEVSEYEVICH
Rabinowitch, Alexander. (1976). The Bolsheviks Come to Power: The Revolution of 1917 in Petrograd. New York: Norton. Schapiro, Leonard. (1971). The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 2nd ed. New York: Vintage. Tucker, Robert C. (1990). Stalin in Power: The Revolution From Above, 1928-1941. New York: Norton. Voskresensky, Lev. (1989). Names That Have Returned: Nikolai Bukharin, Alexei Rykov, Grigori Zinovyev, Lev Kamenev, Grigori Sokolnikov, Martemyan Ryutin. Moscow: Novosti.
MICHAEL C. HICKEY
(1866-1944), artist.
In 1889, after studying at Moscow University in law and economics, Vassily Vasilievich Kandin-sky participated in an expedition to the Vologda province in the north of Russia, sponsored by the Imperial Society for Natural Sciences, Ethnography, and Anthropology. The folk art, music, and rituals of the far north were influences that prompted his later decision to abandon his law profession for art at the age of thirty.
In 1897 Kandinsky moved to Munich to study at the private art school of Anton Ab?, where he met Alexei von Jawlensky and Marianne Werefkin. After finishing his studies in the Munich Academy in 1901, Kandinsky joined the Expressionist association, Phalanx, where he met Gabrielle M?nther, a student at the Phalanx school. Although Kandin-sky maintained Munich as his principle place of residence, he exhibited in Moscow at the Moscow Association of Artists, at the Izdebsky Salon in Odessa, and with the Neue K?nstlerveriningung in Munich, all the while maintaining and strengthening the contacts between Russian artists and their German counterparts.
By 1911 Kandinsky was the leading representative of the Russian avant-garde, participating in the Jack of Diamonds show and organizing the Blaue Reiter group with Franz Marc, inviting David Burliuk and the Hyleans to participate in the exhibition and the Blaue Reiter Almanac. In 1912 he published his theory of art, Concerning the Spiritual in Art, in Munich. After the outbreak of World War I, he returned to Russia and actively participated in Russian cultural life. After the Revolution of 1917, he served in IZO Narkompros (The Visual Arts Section of the People’s Commissariat for Enlightenment). From 1918 he taught at the SVOMAS (Free Art Studio), and in 1920 he became director of INKhUK (The Institute of Artist Culture). By 1921 the art establishment began to turn away from abstraction in art toward more realistic representation, and a disillusioned Kandinsky returned to Germany to participate in Bauhaus.
721
See also: CHAGALL, MARC
Bowlt, John E., and Long, Rose-Carol Washton, eds. (1980). The Life of Vasilii Kandinsky in Russian Art: A Study of On the Spiritual in Art. Newtonville, MA: Oriental Research Partners. Hahl-Koch, Jelena. (1993). Kandinsky. New York: Riz-zoli. Weiss, Peg. (1995). Kandinsky and Old Russia: The Artist as Ethnographer and Shaman. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
(1912-1986), Soviet mathematician and economist; founder of the theory of optimal planning and of linear programming.
Kantorovich showed early promise as a mathematical scientist, entering Leningrad University at the age of fourteen and graduating at eighteen. There he did research in set theory and soon met other great Soviet mathematicians, among them Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov. By 1934 Kan-torovich was made a full professor. After the war, he played an important role in the new Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences, moving to Novosibirsk in 1960.
During the 1930s Kantorovich contributed to the developing theory of partially ordered functional spaces. In
