homesick Kovalevskaya wrote her vivid reminiscences of girlhood; a novella based on a true incident, The Nihilist Girl; two plays written in Swedish with writer Anna Charlotte Leffler
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under the title Struggle for Happiness, concerning the contrast between real and ideal fates in life; and some journalistic articles. In 1888 Kovalevskaya received the prestigious French Prix Bordin for mathematics in blind competition. Death from pneumonia in 1891 cut short Kovalevskaya’s dual careers as mature scientist and budding author. In the early twentieth century her story served as inspiration for science-minded girls throughout Europe. Her mathematics-in particular, equations describing the motions of rotating solids over time (“Kovalevsky’s top”)- has particular relevance in the space age.
Koblitz, Ann Hibner. (1993). A Convergence of Lives: Sofia Kovalevskaia, Scientist, Writer, Revolutionary. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Kovalevskaya, Sonya. (1979). A Russian Childhood, tr., ed., and intro. Beatrice Stillman; with an analysis of Kovalevskaya’s Mathematics by P. Y. Kochina. New York: Springer-Verlag. Kovalevskaya, Sonya. (2001). Nihilist Girl, tr. Natasha Kolchevska with Mary Zirin. New York: Modern Language Association of America.
MARY ZIRIN
knowledgeable about economic matters, and “firm, not someone who can be easily swayed.”
By 1963, when Kozlov was de facto second secretary of the Soviet Communist party, he seemed to Western Kremlinologists to be leading conservative resistance to Khrushchev’s reforms. In all probability, however, there was no organized opposition, and in fact, Kozlov soon began to irritate Khrushchev, for example, when he allowed the Soviet Communist Party’s ritual May Day 1963 greetings to other Communist parties to imply an unauthorized change of line on Yugoslavia. Shortly after Khrushchev berated Kozlov for this mistake (but not necessarily because of Khrushchev’s tirade), Kozlov suffered a stroke, which removed him from participation in the Presidium, although he formally remained a member until Khrushchev’s ouster in October 1964. See also: KHRUSHCHEV, NIKITA SERGEYEVICH
Khrushchev, Sergei. (1990). Khrushchev on Khrushchev, tr. and ed. William Taubman. Boston: Little, Brown. Tatu, Michel. (1969). Power in the Kremlin: From Khrushchev to Kosygin, tr. Helen Katel. New York: Viking Press.
WILLIAM TAUBMAN
(1908-1965), top Communist party leader during the 1950s and early 1960s.
Frol Kozlov’s path to power was typical for party leaders of his generation of Soviet. Born in a village in Ryazan Province, Kozlov became a worker and assistant foreman at a textile plant where he also served as Communist Youth League secretary. After studying at the Leningrad Polytechnical Institute and working as an engineer, he rose through the ranks: secretary of the Izhevsk city party committee (1940-1941), second secretary of Kuibyshev Province (1947-1949), a party leader of Leningrad (1949-1957), candidate member of the Central Committee’s Presidium (1957), and a Central Committee secretary in 1960.
Presidium colleague Alexander Shelepin later described Kozlov as a “very limited man.” Anastas Mikoyan labeled him an “unintelligent, pro-Stalinist reactionary and careerist.” Yet Kozlov backed Khrushchev in his battle with the Antiparty Group in 1957, and according to Khrushchev, he seemed
KOZYREV, ANDREI VLADIMIROVICH
(b. 1951), Russian foreign minister.
Andrei Kozyrev served as post-Communist Russia’s first foreign minister, from 1990 to 1996. He was well known as an advocate of pro-Western policies, but by the mid-1990s, as these views fell out of favor, he was forced from office.
Kozyrev was born in Belgium in 1951, where his father, a Soviet diplomat, was then serving. He was educated at Moscow State Institute of International Relations, and he joined the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs, becoming head of the Department of International Organizations in 1986. He is fluent in English, Spanish, and French.
In 1990, when Russia declared its sovereignty, Kozyrev was named foreign minister, and he was one of the leading advocates for reform in Boris Yeltsin’s circle. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, he helped spearhead Russia’s pro-Western
turn in foreign policy, pursuing cooperation with the United States on issues such as disarmament, the Middle East, Yugoslavia, and trade and economic relations. He was also viewed by many as one of the most important voices for liberalism and democracy in post-Communist Russia.
However, the incipient partnership between Moscow and Washington began to flounder in 1993 over such issues as the war in Yugoslavia and NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) expansion. Critics began to push for a more forceful and aggressive Russian foreign policy, and Kozyrev’s language also became more bellicose on occasion, including threats against Russia’s neighbors and an assertion of special rights for Russia in the former Soviet space-the Near Abroad. Nonetheless, this was not enough, and by 1995 Yeltsin let it be known that he was no longer satisfied with the course of Russia’s foreign policy. In January 1996 Yevgeny Primakov, a career Soviet diplomat known for more conservative views, replaced Kozyrev, who then served as a member of the Russian Duma (parliament) until the end of 1999. He has written numerous articles and books on international politics. See also: NEAR ABROAD; PERESTROIKA; YELTSIN, BORIS NIKOLAYEVICH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kozyrev, Andrei. (1995). “Partnership or Cold Peace?” Foreign Policy 99: 3-14. Talbott, Strobe. (2002). The Russia Hand: A Memoir of Presidential Diplomacy. New York: Random House.
suaded his Cossacks from becoming involved in “Russian affairs,” and Krasnov himself was taken prisoner near Pulkovo. Remarkably, he was released after swearing not to oppose the Soviet government further. He immediately moved to the Don territory, was elected ataman of the Don Cossack Host in May 1918, and, assisted by Germany, cleared the Don of Red forces over the summer of that year. After the armistice, his former collaboration with Germany made his position difficult. Following defeats at the hands of the Reds and quarrels with the pro-Allied General Denikin, in early 1919 Krasnov resigned his post and emigrated to Germany. He subsequently became a prolific writer of forgettable historical novels but also worked with various anti-Bolshevik groups in inter- war Europe, eventually allying himself with the Nazis and helping them, from 1941 to 1945, to form anti-Soviet Cossack units from Soviet POWs. In 1945 he joined the Cossack puppet state that the Nazis established in the Italian Alps. Surrendering to the British in May 1945, he was among those forcibly repatriated to the Soviet Union, in accordance with provisions of the Yalta agreement. In January 1947, accused of treason, he was hanged, by order of the Military Collegium of the USSR Supreme Court. See also: CIVIL WAR OF 1917-1922; COSSACKS; KERENSKY, ALEXANDER FYODOROVICH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tolstoy, Nikolai. (1977). Victims of Yalta. London: Hod-der amp; Stoughton.
(1869-1947), Cossack ataman, anti-Bolshevik leader, and author.
Son of a Cossack general, Pyotr Krasnov was born in St. Petersburg and educated at Pavlovsk Military School, graduating in 1888. During World War I, he rose to the rank of lieutenant-general and to the command of the Third Cavalry Corps in August 1917. After the October Revolution, in uneasy collaboration with Alexander Kerensky (whom, as a monarchist, he despised), Krasnov was among the first to take military action against the Bolsheviks,
