BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beschloss, Michael R., and Talbott, Strobe. (1993). At the Highest Levels: The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Garthoff, Raymond L. (1994). The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.
Nadezhda Yakovlevna Mandelshtam (n?e Khaz-ina) is known primarily for her two books detailing life with her husband, the Modernist poet Osip Mandelshtam, and the years following his death in Stalin’s purges. She grew up in Kiev in a tight-knit, intellectually gifted family, fondly recalled in three biographical sketches. With the onset of revolution and civil war, she enjoyed a bohemian existence as a painter in the artist Alexandra Ekster’s studio.
In 1922 Nadezhda married Mandelshtam, and the two moved to Moscow and then to Leningrad in 1924. In 1925 her friendship with the poet Anna Akhmatova began. Osip Mandelshtam was arrested in Moscow in 1934 after writing a poem that denounced Josef Stalin. Nadezhda accompanied him into exile in Voronezh until 1937 and in 1938 was present when he was arrested and sent to the gulag where he died. She escaped arrest the same year.
For the next two decades, Nadezhda Man-delshtam survived by teaching English and moved frequently to avoid official attention. In 1951 she completed a dissertation in linguistics. She also began working on her husband’s rehabilitation and researching his life and fate. Many of his poems survived because she committed them to memory. Her first book of memoirs, Vospominaniia (New York, 1970, translated as Hope Against Hope, 1970), was devoted to her final years with Osip Man-delshtam and to a broader indictment of the Stalinist system that had condemned him. The book, which circulated in the Soviet Union in samizdat, attracted attention and praise from Soviet and Western readers. Her second book, Vtoraia kniga (Paris, 1972, translated as Hope Abandoned, 1974), offended some Russian readers with its opinionated descriptions of various literary figures. Treatments of Nadezhda Mandelshtam’s work have noted her success in achieving a strong and vibrant literary voice of her own even as she transmitted the cultural legacy of a previous generation. See also: AKHMATOVA, ANNA ANDREYEVNA; GULAG; MANDELSHTAM, OSIP EMILIEVICH; PURGES, THE GREAT; SAMIZDAT
MANDELSHTAM, NADEZHDA YAKOVLEVNA
(1899-1980), memoirist and preserver of her husband Osip Mandelshtam’s poetic legacy.
Brodsky, Joseph. (1986). “Nadezhda Mandelstam (1899-1980): An Obituary.” In Less Than One: Selected Essays. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux. Holmgren, Beth. (1993). Women’s Works in Stalin’s Time. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
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Proffer, Carl R. (1987). The Widows of Russia and Other Writings. Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis.
(1891-1938), Modernist poet and political martyr.
One of Russia’s greatest twentieth-century poets, Osip Mandelshtam died en route to the gulag after writing a poem critical of Josef V. Stalin. Born to a cultured Jewish family in Warsaw, Man-delshtam spent his childhood in St. Petersburg, traveled in Europe, and, in 1909, began to frequent the literary salon of the Symbolist poet Vyacheslav Ivanov. In 1911, while enrolled at St. Petersburg University, he joined the Guild of Poets headed by Nikolai Gumilev and Sergei Gorodetsky and subsequently became a leading figure in a new poetic school called Acmeism. His collections Kamen (Stone, 1913), Tristia (1922), and Stikhotvoreniia (Poems, 1928) show a poet steeped in world culture and focused on themes such as language and time, concepts also addressed in his prose works. In 1922 Mandelshtam married Nadezhda Khazina, who later wrote memoirs of their life together.
Mandelshtam recognized that the Bolshevik takeover in 1917 threatened the cultural values he held dear, and in his poetry and essays of the 1920s he attempted to define the relationship of the poet to the age. Literary prose such as Shum vremeni (The Noise of Time, 1925) and Egipetskaia marka (The Egyptian Stamp, 1928) included autobiographical themes. By the late 1920s, Mandelshtam’s lack of adherence to Soviet norms led to increasing difficulties in getting published. A trip to the Caucasus and Armenia in 1930 provided new inspiration for creativity. But in 1934, after writing a poem critical of Stalin, Mandelshtam was arrested in Moscow and sent to Voronezh for a three-year exile. During this period he wrote Voronezhskie tetradi (Voronezh Notebooks), preserved by his wife. In May 1938, Mandelshtam was arrested once again, sentenced to a Siberian labor camp, and considered a non-person by the Soviet government. He died the same year. In 1956 his rehabilitation began, and in the 1970s a collection of his poetry was published in the Soviet Union. See also: GULAG; MANDELSHTAM, NADEZHDA YAKOV-LEVNA; PURGES, THE GREAT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown, Clarence. (1973). Mandelstam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cavanagh, Clare. (1995). Osip Mandelstam and the Modernist Creation of Tradition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Freidin, Gregory. (1987). A Coat of Many Colors: Osip Mandelstam and His Mythologies of Self-Presentation. Berkeley: University of California Press. Shentalinskii, Vitalii. (1996). Arrested Voices: Resurrecting the Disappeared Writers of the Soviet Regime. New York: Free Press.
Signed by Empress Catherine II, this lengthy, detailed document that invited foreign settlers to Russia, was published in St. Petersburg by the Senate on August 5,1763. The official English version appears in Bartlett, Human Capital (1979). It evolved from several circumstances. In October 1762 the newly crowned empress ordered the Senate to encourage foreign settlement (except Jews) as a means to reinforce “the well-being of Our Empire.” In response, a short manifesto of mid-December 1762 was translated into “all foreign languages” and printed in many foreign newspapers. Both manifestoes crystallized Russian government thinking about immigration in general by considering specific cases and problems amid European popula-tionist discourse over many decades.
Catherine II championed “populationism” even before she gained the throne, probably from reading German cameralist works that postulated increasing population as an index of state power and prestige. Also, Peter the Great had formulated in a famous decree of 1702 the policy of recruiting skilled Europeans, and Catherine endorsed the Petrine precedent. The notion that Russia was underpopulated went back several centuries, an issue that had become acute with the empire’s recent expansion, and the Romanov dynasty’s rapid Eu-ropeanization. Cessation of the European phases of the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) also suggested that the German lands might harbor a reservoir of capable individuals and families eager to settle Russia’s huge empty, potentially rich spaces.
The impatient empress felt pressured to demonstrate her governing abilities by pursuing peaceful policies that her immediate predecessors had barely
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begun. Moreover, she was determined to repair the economic-financial ravages of the war that had just ended. It was one thing to declare a new policy, however, and something else to institute it. In preparing the two manifestoes of 1762-1763 the Senate discovered many partial precedents and several concrete impediments to welcoming masses of immigrants. More than six months elapsed between the issuance of the two manifestoes, during which time governments were consulted and institutions formulated to care for the anticipated newcomers. It was decided that the manifesto should list the specific lands available for settlement and not exclude any groups. Drawing on foreign precedent and the suggestion of Senator Peter Panin, the manifesto of 1763 established a special government office with jurisdiction over new settlers, the Chancery of Guardianship of Foreigners. The first head, Count Grigory Orlov, Catherine’s common- law husband and leader of her seizure of the throne, personified the office’s high status. The new Russian immigration policy offered generous material incentives, promised freedom of religion and exemption from military recruitment, and guaranteed exemption from enserfment and freedom to leave. These provisions governed immigration policy until at least 1804 and for many decades thereafter. The manifesto of 1763 did not specifically exclude Jews, although Elizabeth’s regime banned them as
