Trotsky himself to Alma Ata in Kazakhstan. There he continued to correspond with his sympathizers and to criticize Stalin’s new industrialization drive. As a result, in January 1929, he was deported from the Soviet Union to Turkey, where he continued to write, completing his autobiography and his History of the Russian Revolution. In 1933 he moved to France, and in 1934 he proclaimed the formation of a Fourth International challenging the legitimacy of the Third Communist International. In many countries Trotskyist parties split off from the communists, including the Socialist Workers’ Party in the United States and, in Spain, the POUM (Partido Obrero de Unificaci?n Marxista), suppressed by Stalinist sympathizers in the course of the Spanish Civil War.
Expelled from France in 1935, Trotsky moved to Norway, whence he was expelled under Soviet
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pressure in 1936. He then settled in Mexico, in the town of Coyoac?n, where he lived until his assassination in 1940. Trotsky was virtually expunged from official Soviet history, becoming an “unperson” in George Orwell’s term; writings by or about him were completely suppressed. During the Moscow Trials of 1936-1938 he was vilified in absentia as a counterrevolutionary traitor, a charge of which he was absolved by an American investigating committee headed by the philosopher John Dewey. Trotsky fired back in numerous writings, notably The Revolution Betrayed, charging that Stalin’s regime was a bureaucratic perversion of socialism and calling quixotically for a new workers’ revolution.
Trotsky was murdered on August 20, 1940, by an undercover agent of the Soviet secret police, a Spanish communist named Ram?n Mercader, who had gained entry to the victim’s household under a pseudonym. The Soviet government denied involvement, though its role has since been well established. Mercader served a twenty- year prison sentence. Trotsky continued to be demonized in the Soviet Union, and the Gorbachev government never got around to rehabilitating him officially as it did other purge victims. His personal archive has been preserved at Harvard University.
Trotsky was a brilliant writer and a charismatic revolutionary leader. As a politician, however, he was by all accounts arrogant and arbitrary, and he antagonized most of his communist associates in the years when personal opinions still counted. His military methods during the civil war are often regarded as an anticipation of Stalinism, though in later years he protested the violation of democratic procedures and the growth of bureaucratic privilege in the Soviet Union. He is often viewed as an apostle of world revolution, in contrast with Stalin’s nationalism. In any case, Stalin became obsessed with destroying Trotsky and anyone connected with him, including family members. See also: BOLSHEVISM; LENIN, VLADIMIR ILICH; MENSHE-VIKS; PERMANENT REVOLUTION; STALIN, JOSEF VIS- SARIONOVICH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Breitman, George, and Reed, Evelyn, eds. (1969-) Writings of Leon Trotsky. 14 vols. New York. Brotherstone, Terry, and Dukes, Paul, eds. (1992). The Trotsky Reappraisal. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
The Case of Leon Trotsky: Report of Hearings on the Charges Made against Him in the Moscow Trials. (1937). New York. Daniels, Robert V. (1960). The Conscience of the Revolution: Communist Opposition in Soviet Russia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Daniels, Robert V. (1991). Trotsky, Stalin, and Socialism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Deutscher, Isaac. (1954). The Prophet Armed: Trotsky, 1879-1921. London: Oxford University Press. Deutscher, Isaac. (1959). The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky, 1921-1929. London: Oxford University Press. Deutscher, Isaac. (1963). The Prophet Outcast: Trotsky, 1929-1940. London: Oxford University Press. Howe, Irving. (1978). Leon Trotsky. New York: Viking Press. Knei-Paz, Baruch. (1978). The Social and Political Thought of Leon Trotsky. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Molyneux, John. (1981). Leon Trotsky’s Theory of Revolution. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Trotsky, Leon. (1930). My Life: An Attempt at an Autobiography. New York: Scribners. Trotsky, Leon. (1975). The Challenge of the Left Opposition (1923-1925), ed. Naomi Allen. New York: Pathfinder Press. Volkogonov, Dmitri A. (1996). Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary. New York: Free Press. Wolfe, Bertram D. (1948). Three Who Made a Revolution: A Biographical History. New York: Dial Press. Wolfenstein, E. Victor. (1967). The Revolutionary Personality: Lenin, Trotsky, Gandhi. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
ROBERT V. DANIELS
TRUDODEN See LABOR DAY. TRUMAN DOCTRINE See COLD WAR.
At the behest of Vladimir Lenin, war communism, which was introduced during the civil war and sought to achieve full state ownership and operation of the economy immediately, was abandoned as unwieldy, unworkable, and premature. It was replaced by the NEP, under which state industry
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was divided into two categories: the commanding heights and a decentralized sector. The former industries, which included fuel, metallurgy, the war industries, transportation, banking, and foreign trade, remained under direct supervision of the government in the form of the Supreme Council of the National Economy (VSNKh). These industries continued as part of the central budget and were subject to centralized allocations of supplies and outputs.
The decentralized industries, consisting mainly of firms serving ordinary consumers, were encouraged to form into trusts. VSNKh created sixteen new departments, which replaced the fifty or so glavki, to supervise the largest and most important trusts. About a quarter of the trusts, mainly involved in light industry, were supervised at the decentralized level of the sovnarkhozy. By mid-1923 there were 478 trusts composed of 3,561 enterprises and employing about 75 percent of the total industrial workforce. Subsequently, many trusts were amalgamated into even larger units, known as syndicates.
The consolidation of industries into trusts and of trusts into syndicates was obviously intended to make control and coordination of the economy simpler and more effective. These large-scale organizations posed certain problems, especially when their managers sought to use the monopoly power they provided against consumers or other sectors of the economy. The Soviet trust disappeared with the beginning of rapid industrialization and the five-year plan era of the 1930s. See also: COMMITTEE FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMY; NEW ECONOMIC POLICY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Maurice Dobb. (1948). Soviet Economic Development since 1917. New York: International Publishers. Gregory, Paul R., and Robert C. Stuart, Soviet Economic Structure and Performance, 4th ed. New York: HarperCollins.
Tsarskoye Selo (known as Detskoye Selo between 1918 and 1937, Pushkin thereafter) is a suburb of St. Petersburg best known for its imperial palaces and its lyceum. The town was established in 1708
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on the site of a conquered Finnish village, not long after the founding of St. Petersburg. The first railroad in Russia, opened in 1837, connected Tsarskoye Selo to the capital, about twenty-five kilometers (fourteen miles) away. In 1887 Tsarskoye Selo also became the first European town to be illuminated by electricity.
Tsarskoye Selo (literally “the Tsar’s Village”) was among the residences of the imperial family from the time of its founding until 1917. Celebrated as the Russian Versailles, the town’s layout and culture owed much to the admiration that the Emperor Peter the Great and his successors felt for the French original and other European models. Initially, between 1708 and 1724, Tsarskoye Selo served as the residence of Peter’s wife, the Empress Catherine I. The original Catherine Palace, named after her, was constructed at that time. Substantial rebuilding of the complex was undertaken during the reign of the Empress Elizabeth (1741-1762), with many famed architects and artists taking part in the project. The most famous example is the architect Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli’s
