description of trade cycles-together with concern for their social consequences- alongside a theoretical explanation combining maldistribution of income, disproportion between industrial branches, and a mechanistic steam engine analogy using free loanable capital as the motor force. This approach influenced Western macroeconomic theorists such as John Maynard Keynes, Dennis Robertson, and Michal Kalecki.
Tugan also wrote a major work examining the history of the Russian factory using legislative and business history sources, a widely read account of the principles of political economy, and a study of cooperative institutions. In addition, Tugan made notable contributions to social theory, monetary economics, conceptions of socialist planning, and the history of economics. Towards the end of his life Tugan’s allegiance shifted from Russia back to Ukraine, and he was Ukrainian Minister of Finance from August to December 1917. During 1918 he helped to establish the Academy of Science in Kiev, and died on a train headed for Paris the following year. See also: INDUSTRIALIZATION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barnett, Vincent. (2001). “Tugan-Baranovsky as a Pioneer of Trade Cycle Analysis.” Journal of the History of Economic Thought 23(4):443-466. Crisp, Olga. (1968). “M.I. Tugan-Baranovskii.” In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, ed. D. L. Sills, vol. 16. New York: Macmillan. Tugan-Baranovsky, M. I. (1970). The Russian Factory in the Nineteenth Century, tr. Arthur Levin and Cleora S. Levin. Homewood, IL: R. D. Irwin for the American Economic Association.
(1893-1937), prominent Soviet military figure; strategist, commander, weapons procurer.
Mikhail Tukhachevsky is one of the most important and controversial figures in the history of the Soviet armed forces. Born into aristocracy, he attended prestigious imperial military schools and academies before joining the communist cause and becoming a fervent Bolshevik. He served in World War I and was taken prisoner by the Germans. He escaped, and later commanded Red Army troops in the civil war. Tukhachevsky held numerous important posts within the Red Army, including chief of the Red Army Staff, Chief of Armaments, and Commander of the Leningrad Military District. In 1935 he was awarded the highest military honor of Marshal of the Soviet Union.
Tukhachevsky was an innovative and shrewd military strategist who theorized combat scenarios for future wars, created new means of employing forces, and worked tirelessly for the implementation of his ideas into the rearmament and reform of the armed forces. He incessantly called for more resources to be devoted to rearmament, in spite of numerous competing demands on limited resources from other state sectors.
Tukhachevsky wrote many articles about military tactics and strategy, the most important of which was Future War (1928). This 700-page treatise surveyed the combat potential of all countries neighboring the USSR, offering a range of combat scenarios in the event of war. Together with his military colleagues, Tukhachevsky developed the tactical force employment concept of deep battle. This maneuver involved the use of tanks and aircraft to penetrate deep into the enemy’s defense and destroy his forces. The deep battle concept was incorporated into Soviet 1936 Field Regulations and was utilized in the Red Army’s combat operations against the German Army in the second half of World War II. The deep battle concept also found expression in NATO military doctrine in the 1980s. Tukhachevsky’s contributions arguably rendered him the most prescient and talented strategist in the Red Army in the 1920s and 1930s.
While commander of troops in the Leningrad Military District, Tukhachevsky worked closely with designers and theorists to develop a variety of new weapons and methods for employing them. In addition, he mastered the technical details of
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complex weapons systems, from aircraft engines to dirigibles and rocket propulsion systems. Tukhachevsky also oversaw aspects of the secret military collaboration with German aircraft and chemical weapons experts, urging the Germans to share more of their knowledge and experience than they were sometimes willing. When tensions developed in Manchuria in 1931, presenting the threat of war to the Soviet Union from East and West, defense production became a higher priority, and many of Tukhachevsky’s projects came to fruition.
Tukhachevsky’s relationship with Josef Stalin, who ordered his execution in 1937 during the Great Terror, is controversial and unresolved. The origins of the tension between Stalin and Tukhachevsky have been traced to several events, documents, and rumors. Possible factors include: conflicts between Stalin and Tukhachevsky over the command of the Battle for Warsaw in 1920; Tukhachevsky’s criticism of the role of the cavalry army in the civil war for which Stalin served as chief political commissar; Tukhachevsky’s warnings of the German military threat to the USSR; and documents falsified by Germans or Czechoslovak agents alleging Tukhachevsky’s intent to overthrow the Soviet leadership together with Nazi forces. See also: MILITARY, SOVIET AND POST-SOVIET; PURGES, THE GREAT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alexandrov, Victor. (1963). The Tukhachevsky Affair. London: MacDonald. Samuelson, Lennart. (1999). Plans for Stalin’s War Machine: Tukhachevskii and Military-Economic Planning. New York: St. Martin’s. Stoecker, Sally. (1998). Forging Stalin’s Army: Marshal Tukhachevsky and the Politics of Military Innovation. Boulder, CO: Westview.
(1888-1972), patriarch of Soviet aircraft design.
Andrei Tupolev was one of the most important aircraft designers in the Soviet Union during the interwar period and was awarded the honor of “Hero of Socialist Labor” three times in his career. Tupolev is considered by many to be the father of
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Soviet nonferrous metal aircraft construction, and he developed more than fifty original aircraft designs and over 100 modifications. In addition to fighter aircraft and heavy long-range bomber aircraft, Tupolev also designed aero-sleighs, dirigibles, and torpedo boats. Educated at the prestigious Bau-man Technical School in Moscow, he was one of the founders of the Central Aviation Institute in 1918 and created a design bureau within it. He spent most of his career at the design bureau and in 1936 received orders from the Heavy Industry Commissariat to transfer to GUAP (State Directorate of Aviation Industry) as their chief engineer who oversaw aircraft production. In May 1937, Tupolev’s ANT-7 flew to the North Pole successfully. One month later, he was accused of being an enemy of the state and was arrested for his alleged role in espionage. After serving one year in regular prison, Tupolev was permitted to continue his design work in a special prison as a means of avoiding hard labor. Although his name was temporarily withdrawn from public, his stature was restored in the post-Stalin era. See also: AVIATION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Saukke, M. B. (1993). The Little-Known Tupolev (Neizvest-nyi Tupolev). Moscow: Original. Yakovlev, A.S. (1982). Soviet Aircraft (Sovetskiye samo-lety). Moscow: Nauka.
(1818-1883), Russian novelist, playwright, and poet.
Turgenev was born into an extremely wealthy family on an estate with 500 serfs near Oryol, in the Mtsensky uezd, in central European Russia. His mother, a tyrannical shrew, savagely beat her serfs and her sons and despised all things Russian. The family spoke only French in the home. His father was an attractive and dissipated rake. Turgenev’s childhood nurtured in him an animosity toward the institution of serfdom and a profound understanding of the culture of rural, aristocratic culture of pre-Reform Russia-the very cultural wellspring from which so many of the characters in his novels were to emerge.
