A history of Russia

accomplishment rather than sweep it away. Bolder and more important historiographical developments should appear in the coming years.

In the preparation of this new edition, I made the usual additions and changes throughout the manuscript, and considered or introduced at least fifty-seven emendations in Soviet history prior to 1985. If not always minor - the figure of Soviet casualties in the Second World War was raised from 20 million to 27 million, and that is 7 million more dead - they were brief and precise. The last narrative chapter was, of course, written anew, and the 'Concluding Remarks' underwent considerable change.

As always, I am deeply indebted to many people: my colleagues at the University of California, Berkeley; other colleagues whom I met at the Wilson Center and the Kennan Institute in Washington, D.C., where I spent the 1989-1990 academic year; still other American colleagues elsewhere as well as extremely numerous Soviet scholars and other Soviet visitors. I must emphasize my gratitude to Professor Gregory Grossman, whose help has been, again, invaluable in the treatment of the Soviet economy in the volume and, moreover, whom I consider in general to be our best specialist on the Soviet Union. I am grateful to Nancy Lane and her colleagues at Oxford University Press; to my secretary, Nadine Ghammache; and to my research assistants, Theodore Weeks, John W. Randolph, Jr., and Ilya Vinkovetsky, who had the major responsibility for revising the index. More generally, I am grateful for the continuing response to my History abroad as well as in the United States. Since the publication of the fourth American edition, there appeared another and different Italian edition, a French edition, and even a pirated Korean edition in South Korea of the imperial part of my volume (I was told that the earlier part is being prepared for publication). But as usual, in these fluid times, too, my main indebtedness is to my students and my wife.

Berkeley, California Nicholas V. Riasanovsky

April 1992

PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION

The seven years that passed since the last edition of my A History of Russia proved to be less definitive for that country than many specialists, as well as the general public, had expected. Russia is still in transition and under great stress and strain. Its economy continues to decline. Indeed, the financial collapse of August 1998 delivered a major blow even to those groups in society which had formerly prospered because of the transformation. Still, grim as numerous forecasts of the Russian future are, they do not include a return to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. For well or ill the country has entered a new historical period, that of Russian Federation. The great importance attached to the forthcoming elections is one clear indication that the scenario has changed.

As with earlier editions, and probably more so, I tried to keep up with the latest developments, especially for the new chapter on 'Yeltsin's Russia,' and also to profit by the opening of the Russian archives, particularly for the Soviet period. Fortunately some of the best work based on these archives has been done by our Berkeley Ph.Ds and Ph.D. candidates. I used opportunities to go to Russia, attend scholarly conferences, and engage in discussion with many Russian scholars (as well as with many more when they came to Berkeley or to international or our national conferences), and I lectured in Moscow (in the Kremlin, no less). I want to thank here warmly my Russian hosts and interlocutors. I am also deeply grateful to American colleagues and helpers. Professor Gregory Grossman, as before, was invaluable in the area of economics, but also for his unsurpassed knowledge of the Soviet Union in general. Other colleagues who usefully read and criticized parts of the manuscript included Professors Robert Middle-kauff, Alexander Vucinich, and Reginald Zelnik. Dr. John Dunlop of the Hoover Institution provided some very valuable newly-available source material. My research assistant, Ilya Vinkovetsky, demonstrated again his marvelous acquaintance with the Soviet and contemporary Russian scene, and he also worked on the index. Ms. Nadine Ghammache supplied once more fine and eager secretarial help. Further, I want to acknowledge the prompt and effective work of what is for me a new Oxford University Press 'team' of Ms. Gioia Stevens, Ms. Stacie Caminos, and Mr. Benjamin Clark. Our daughter Maria helped me with the photographs and in certain other matters. Finally, I am most in debt, for reasons too long to list here, to my wife Arlene.

Berkeley, California Nicholas V. Riasanovsky

May, 1999

CONTENTS

Part I INTRODUCTION

I A Geographical Note 3 II Russia Before the Russians 11

Part II KIEVAN RUSSIA

III The Establishment of the Kievan State 23

IV Kievan Russia: A Political Outline 29

V Kievan Russia: Economics, Society, Institutions 43

VI Kievan Russia: Religion and Culture 52

Part III APPANAGE RUSSIA

VII Appanage Russia: Introduction 63

VIII The Mongols and Russia 67

IX Lord Novgorod the Great 77

X The Southwest and the Northeast 88

XI The Rise of Moscow 95

XII Appanage Russia: Economics, Society, Institutions 114

XIII Appanage Russia: Religion and Culture 120

XIV The Lithuanian-Russian State 132

Part IV MUSCOVITE RUSSIA

XV The Reigns of Ivan the Terrible, 1533-84, and of Theodore,

1584-98 143 XVI The Time of Troubles, 1598-1613 157 XVII The Reigns of Michael, 1613-45, Alexis, 1645-76, and

Theodore, 1676-82 175 XVIII Muscovite Russia: Economics, Society, Institutions 183 XIX Muscovite Russia: Religion and Culture 196

Part V IMPERIAL RUSSIA

XX The Reign of Peter the Great, 1682-1725 213 XXI Russian History from Peter the Great to Catherine the Great: The Reigns of Catherine 1, 1725-27, Peter II, 1727-30, Anne, 1730-40, Ivan VI, 1740-41, Elizabeth, 1741-62, and Peter III, 1762 242 XXII The Reigns of Catherine the Great, 1762-96, and Paul, 1796-

1801 254 XXIII The Economic and Social Development of Russia in the

Eighteenth Century 276 XXIV Russian Culture in the Eighteenth Century 285 XXV The Reign of Alexander I, 1801-25 300 XXVI The Reign of Nicholas I, 1825-55 323 XXVII The Economic and Social Development of Russia in the First

Half of the Nineteenth Century 341 XXVIII Russian Culture in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century 348 XXIX The Reign of Alexander II, 1855-81 368 XXX The Reign of Alexander III, 1881-94, and the First Part of the

Reign of Nicholas II, 1894-1905 391 XXXI The Last Part of the Reign of Nicholas 11: The Revolution of

1905 and the Constitutional Period, 1905-17 404 XXXII The Economic and Social Development of Russia from the

'Great Reforms' until the Revolutions of 1917 422 XXXIII Russian