detail.
If too few Critics are aroused, then make the description more abstract.
If important resources conflict, then try to discover a cause for this.
If there has been a series of failures, then switch to a different set of Critics.
Sometimes we recognize, after the fact, that our selections may have been incorrect, and that we may need to edit our collection of Critics:
I selected a hard-to-use method, but realized that I knew a simpler yet better one.
I now see that the action I took had a bad, irreversible side effect.
I regarded that as an obstacle, but now I see that it was valuable.
Although that method caused some trouble, I learned a lot from using it.
To recognize those kinds of events would require Critics that work at higher levels—and all this suggests that our model of mind should include Selectors and Critics at every level.[133]
The following sections will discuss some of our many Ways to Think, and some of the Critics we use to recognize various ways in which we get stuck.
??????????????????? §7-4. What are some useful “Ways to Think?”
“When you want people to think you are brilliant, just imagine the worst thing that you could do and then do precisely the opposite.”
—Naomi Judd. [get her permission] It is mainly when we get into trouble that we engage the processes that we call thinking or reasoning. However, ‘thinking’ is no single, definite thing; instead, we use different ‘Ways to Think’ for dealing with different types of obstacles. It ought to be one of our central goals—both for AI and for Psychology—to classify our Ways to Think. However, we don’t yet have systematic ways to classify those abilities—so I’ll just list some examples of them.
Knowing How: The best way to solve a problem is to know how to solve it and use that solution. However, we may not know how to retrieve what we know, or even know that we know it.
Extensive Search. When one knows no better alternative, one could search through all possible chains of actions—but this is usually impractical because that search grows exponentially.
Reasoning by Analogy: When a problem reminds you of one that you solved in the past, you may be able to adapt that case to the present situation—if you have good ways to tell which similarities are most relevant.
Divide and Conquer. If you can’t solve a problem all at once, then break it down into smaller parts. For example, every difference we recognize may suggest a separate sub-problem to solve.
Planning. Consider the set of sub-goals you want to achieve and examine how they affect each other. Then, with those constraints in mind, propose an efficient sequence for achieving them.
Simplification.Sometimes, a good way to make a plan is to make a simplified problem by ignoring some aspects of the original one. Then any solution to the simplified one may serve as a sequence of stepping-stones for solving the initial problem.
Elevation. If you are bogged down in too many details, describe the situation in more general terms. But if your description seems too vague, switch to one that is more concrete.
Reformulation. Find a different representation that highlights more relevant information. We often do this by making a verbal description—and then ‘understanding’ it in some different way!
Self-reflection. Instead of pursuing a problem itself, ask what makes that problem seem hard, or what you might be doing wrong. This can lead to better ways to represent the problem.
Contradiction. Try to prove that your problem cannot be solved, and then look for a flaw in that argument.
Use external representations: If you find that you’re losing track of details, you can resort to keeping records and notes, or drawing suitable diagrams.
Simulation. One can avoid taking physical risks if one can predict “what would happen if” by imagining possible actions inside the mental models that one has built.
Correlation. When certain events seem to happen together, try to find ways in which they may be connected.
Logical Reasoning.We sometimes make ‘logical chains of deductions,’ but those conclusions may be wrong because of exceptions to our assumptions.[134]
Wishful thinking. Imagine having unlimited time and all the resources that you might want. If you still can’t envision solving the problem, then you should reformulate it.
Impersonation. When your own ideas seem inadequate, imagine someone better at this, and try to do what that person would do.
Cry for help.You can always resort to other techniques that most people would call “emotional.”
Resignation.Whenever you find yourself totally stuck, you can shut down the resources you’re using now and relax, lay back, drop out, and stop. Then the ‘Rest of Your Mind’ may find an alternative—or conclude that you don’t have to do this at all.
How do we choose which of these to use? The Critic-Selector model suggests that each person can recognize particular ways in which one gets stuck—and can use each such diagnosis to select one or more particular ways to deal with that kind of predicament. We each do this in different ways, and the Critics that we each develop must be among our most precious resources.
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