over several weeks. A Helios could be 'parked' over the storm, monitoring its development. Continuous data on atmospheric conditions and water temperatures would result in better predictions of storm strength and movements.[589]
Another application is high-altitude astronomical observations. The Helios can fly above most of the atmosphere, which would allow instruments to observe in ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths. These observations cannot be made from ground-based telescopes because the atmosphere and water vapor absorb these wavelengths.
A Helios could also serve as a 'pseudosatellite' for communications. If communications links are disrupted by a natural disaster, such as an earthquake or severe storm, cellular phone equipment could be carried by a Helios, which would act as a long-distance relay station. As MacCready observed, 'mouths water when they hear about this.'[590]
The final, indirect result of a Helios would be improved electronic and solar technology. The payload limitations would encourage development of ultralightweight electronics and sensors, much as satellites did in the 1950s and 1960s.[591] Just as the solar-powered car efforts made Pathfinder practical, a Helios development effort could improve solar technology. [592]
It has been estimated that a Helios-SRA would cost between $2 and $3 million, assuming a minimum production run of twenty aircraft.[593] Although the possible uses of such an eternal aircraft are many, it still faces many technological problems. In particular, the development of flyable fuel cells are the key to day-night flights. As a White project, Pathfinder-Helios now faces a political environment that views new and innovative ideas with dis-interest or hostility.
The HALSOL was not the only Black UAV program. In the early 1980s, DARPA began a Black study of long- endurance UAVs under the code name 'Teal Rain.' This looked at both short- and long-term possibilities.[594]
In December of 1984, DARPA issued a $40 million development contract to Leading Systems of Irvine, California, to build a medium-range, low-cost tactical UAV. Leading Systems, in the best tradition of high-tech companies, had started in a garage in 1980. The control system for the UAV was built in the living room of one of the founders.[595] The navy, army, and Marine Corps soon became involved with the project. The navy was given control.
As with earlier Black airplanes, the goal was the rapid building of the prototypes. The program office had few government personnel, while the number of support contractors was kept small. This kept the amount of program reviews and paperwork to a minimum.[596]
Called 'Amber,' it could carry either a warhead or reconnaissance or ELINT equipment. The inverted 'V-tail' stabilizers hung down from the rear fuselage. The long wing was mounted on a small pylon atop the fuselage. On the strike version, the wing would be separated from the pylon; the UAV would then fall to the target. The piston engine was located at the rear.
It used technology originally developed for Indy car engines. The Amber took off and landed on a set of long and sticklike retractable landing gear.
Although it was as large as a light airplane, the Amber was more akin to the simple battlefield support UAVs, rather than the complex strategic drones used earlier.
Once the contract was issued, Leading Systems began work on six prototypes called the Basic Amber — three A45s, with the pointed nose of the strike version, and three B45s, with the bulged nose section of the reconnaissance version. Flight tests began in November 1986 at the Leading Systems test facility at the El Mirage Airport, in the Mojave Desert, near Edwards Air Force Base. On June 16, 1987, a 20.25-hour flight was successfully made. The initial test program was completed in June, and the Basic Amber was judged to have performed 'extremely well.'[597]
During September and October of 1987, the Basic Ambers underwent a second series of tests at the army's Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah.
These proved out the low-drag aerodynamics, lightweight structure, control system, and engine. The third Amber prototype was lost during the tests.
When the UAV was placed in a high-angle-of-attack or high-g condition, it would start to oscillate.[598] This was corrected, and by 1988 flight durations of thirty hours at 17,000 feet, and thirty-five hours at 5,000 feet had been demonstrated. The maximum altitude reached was 27,800 feet.[599]
Up to this point, the Amber program had been a secret. During the fall of 1987, information began to be released on the design, possible payloads, and future activities. However, many details such as the engine technology and performance specifications, remained 'highly classified.'[600] The first public appearance by the Amber was at the 1988 San Diego Air Show.[601]
Another highly publicized display of Amber took place in June 1988. For the Fifteenth Annual Association of Unmanned Vehicle Systems Technical Symposium and Exhibit, Leading Systems decided to attempt to break its UAV world endurance record. The Amber took off from El Mirage at 7:48 A.M. on June 6. As the flight progressed, the elapsed time was posted in Leading Systems' booth. At 10:10 P.M. on June 7, the Amber was brought to a landing. The total elapsed time was thirty-eight hours and twenty-two minutes, a new record.[602]
During this same time, Congress was becoming dissatisfied with the large number of UAV programs under way. In 1987, it ordered a consolidation of the programs and froze UAV funding pending submission of a master plan for its approval. In June 1988, the Joint Project Office (JPO) for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles was established, under the U.S. Navy's Naval Air Systems Command. UAV funding was now provided at the Office of the Secretary of Defense level. The idea was that with control centered in a single, high-level group, duplication between the UAV programs would be eliminated.[603]
With these bureaucratic changes accomplished, work began on the production Amber I UAVs. It had a length of 14.8 feet and a wingspan of 29.5 feet. Payload was a television
The second series of Amber I test flights was made during October 1989 at Fort Huachuca, Arizona, (headquarters of U.S. Army Intelligence, underlining the tactical mission of Amber). These were called the 'maturation' tests and were to last for 500 hours of flight time. They would test the Amber design's ability to meet service specifications for reliability, availability, and maintainability. The payload, data links, and ground control were also integrated. Ten Ambers (three B45s and seven Amber Is) were used in the tests. Some expected that all ten would be lost during the tests, but in fact, there were no mishaps. The Amber Is were turned over to the government between December 1989 and January 1990.[607] A total of thirteen Amber UAVs had been built — three A45s, three B45s, and seven Amber Is.[608] The Amber project was subjected to repeated budget cuts, however, and after the Amber Is were delivered, they were put into storage and the program was canceled. [609]
The end of the Amber I program was one sign of a growing trend. Airborne reconnaissance was being reduced to a second-class mission. In 1990, the SR-71 was retired due to the high cost of operations. The move was widely regarded as an act of folly because it created a gap in overhead reconnaissance. At the low end, the air force and navy were dependent on RF-4C reconnaissance planes and F-14s carrying camera pods. At the high end, photo reconnaissance satellites would provide worldwide coverage. Their resolution was as good as six inches under ideal conditions, but they could provide coverage
