Nemesis: The Last Days of the American Republic

legislation in the time available, much less thought about what it involved. The bill included 11,772 separate earmarks worth a combined total of nearly $16 billion. Silverstein observes, “Of who added these grants, no public record exists.”⁵⁸

Earmarking of defense spending has more than tripled since fiscal year 1995, and the Department of Defense’s black budget, which is secret from all citizens and virtually all members of Congress, was estimated at the end of 2005 at $28 billion per year: $14.2 billion for purchases of hardware and $13.7 billion in so-called research and development expenditures. According to Citizens Against Government Waste, in 1995 Congress approved 1,439 earmarked appropriations; in 2005, the number had risen to 13,998. Gordon Adams, director of security studies at George Washington University and a former White House budget director for national security, notes that members of such influential congressional committees as Intelligence and the Defense Subcommittees of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees “have a lot of power . . . and are sitting in a place where a lot of money flows... . There are huge opportunities here for politicians to tweak the system to their advantage. The smell of corruption is in the air.”⁵⁹

Franklin Spinney, for thirty years a budget analyst in the Pentagon, said in a discussion with Bill Moyers, “The military-industrial-Congressional complex is a political economy with a big P and a little E. It’s very political in nature. Economic decisions, which should prevail in a normal market system, don’t prevail in the Pentagon, or in the military-industrial complex. So what we have is a system that essentially rewards its senior players.... We have a term for it, it’s a self-licking ice cream cone.”⁶⁰ Moyers pointed out that pay for chief executive officers at Lockheed Martin went up from $5.8 million in 2000 to $25.3 million in 2002, at General Dynamics from $5.7 million in 2001 to $15.2 million in 2002, and at Northrop Grumman from $7.3 million in 2000 to $9.2 million in 2002.

Spinney explained that a main lobbying strategy of the military-industrial complex is to emphasize to members of Congress how many jobs are dependent on a particular contract being approved, rather than the usefulness or feasibility of a weapon. Lobbyists’ letters and presentations to members of Congress always include maps showing precisely the communities that will be enriched by Pentagon spending and the funds they will receive.

Coming at it from a somewhat different political perspective is Winslow Wheeler, from 1996 to 2002 the senior analyst for national security on the Republican staff of the Senate Budget Committee and before that an aide to Senators Pete Domenici (Republican from New Mexico), Jacob Javits (Republican from New York), and Nancy Kassebaum (Republican from Kansas). After thirty years working on Capitol Hill, Wheeler retired and devoted himself to revealing the “systemic problems that reduce government to an exploitative system and make it possible for special interests to manipulate it at will.”⁶¹ He has documented how senators added $4 billion in useless “pork” projects to benefit their own states immediately after the 9/11 attacks, including Senator Robert Byrd (Democrat from West Virginia), who strongly opposed going to war against Iraq but nonetheless asked for funds to build an army museum in his home state. Senator Ted Stevens (Republican from Alaska), one of the stalwarts of the missile defense lobby because most of the ground-based interceptors are located in silos in his state, asked for post-9/11 funds to build parking garages (for automobiles, not missiles).

Wheeler’s major study, Wastrels of Defense: How Congress Sabotages U.S. Security, was not brought out by a leftist or liberal publisher but by the Naval Institute Press.⁶² He draws on his own experience to explain how dependent most members of Congress are on their staffs and how most staff officials spend their time inserting earmarks and add-ons to defense bills rather than actually trying to determine how the money of the people of the United States should be spent to achieve security. Between fiscal years 2001 and 2002, just as Wheeler’s career in the Senate was coming to an end, so-called add-ons—that is, unrequested spending for the Pentagon—jumped from $3.3 billion to $5.4 billion, not including, in 2002, $583 million for thirty- two projects added at the last minute by the House-Senate Conference Committee for items neither requested by the Pentagon nor included in the House or Senate bills.⁶³ Wheeler presents numerous examples of how pork projects inserted into legislation to favor special interests undermined or took the place of serious defense projects. He notes that whereas defense appropriations bills in the 1980s might have had as many as two or three hundred pork items, in 2005 or 2006 a bill contains thousands. His argument is that after more than two centuries, the system of checks and balances built into our government by the Constitution no longer works.

If the corruption of the legislative branch were not enough to scuttle the separation of powers, the Congress regularly goes out of its way to bow down to the president. After the press revealed that the National Security Agency was illegally eavesdropping on the private conversations of American citizens and that President Bush had trashed the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, the majority leadership in Congress introduced legislation that, in essence, would have retroactively forgiven him. As the New York Times editorialized, “Imagine being stopped for speeding and having the local legislature raise the limit so you won’t have to pay the fine. It sounds absurd, but it’s just what is happening to the 28-year-old law that prohibits the president from spying on Americans without getting a warrant from a judge. It’s a familiar pattern. President Bush ignores the Constitution and the laws of the land, and the cowardly, rigidly partisan majority in Congress helps him out by rewriting the law he’s broken.”⁶⁴ A Congress that is indifferent to the separation of powers has given up its raison d’etre as surely as the Roman Senate became a mere social club for old aristocrats paying obeisance to Augustus Caesar.

Similarly, even before President Bush undercut the McCain amendment to the Defense Appropriations Bill with his signing statement, Republican senator Lindsey Graham contributed another amendment that removed the federal courts’ jurisdiction over Guantanamo prisoners who were hoping to challenge the legality of their detention. It states explicitly that “no court, justice, or judge shall have jurisdiction to hear or consider habeas corpus applications on behalf of those incarcerated by the Department of Defense in prisons at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.” The Senate passed this remarkably cruel piece of legislation by a vote of 49 to 42. It effectively repudiated the Supreme Court’s 2004 decision in Rasul v. Bush, which gave non-U. S. citizens at Guantanamo the right to file claims based on habeas corpus in the federal courts. The legal scholar Brian Foley explains that habeas corpus forces the executive branch “to justify its detention of any person. It is a check for preventing the Executive from becoming too powerful. After all, an Executive that can jail anyone it dislikes, for as long as it likes, is a formidable power indeed.”⁶⁵

An authority on American use of torture over the years, Alfred W. McCoy, adds, “Senator McCain’s now- compromised ban on cruel treatment of detainees was effectively eviscerated by Graham’s denial of legal redress. To nullify the landmark Supreme Court ruling that Guantanamo is, in fact, American territory and so falls under the purview of U.S. courts, Graham also stipulated in the final legislation that ‘the term “United States,” when used in a geographic sense, does not include the United States Naval Station, Guantanamo Bay.’ In this way, he tried once again to deny detainees any legal basis for access to the courts. In effect, McCain’s motion more or less bans torture, but Graham’s removes any real mechanism for enforcing such a ban.”⁶⁶

Senator Graham claimed that he was merely trying to increase the efficiency of the federal courts, that his amendment was necessary “to eliminate a blizzard of legal claims from prisoners that was tying up Department of Justice resources.”⁶⁷ It is hard to imagine a lamer excuse for dishonoring such a well-established norm of American civil liberties. The Graham provision also explicitly gives the military officers who sit in judgment over Guantanamo prisoners in what the government calls “Combatant Status Review Tribunals” the right to use evidence obtained by torture. The effect of the law is, as Brian Foley argues, “to give the Executive unreviewable power.... A person can be captured, shackled, and sent to Guantanamo and never given a hearing.... He has no right to a hearing because he cannot enforce that right in a court. He can be tortured, because he cannot go to court to enforce a right not to be tortured.”⁶⁸

On June 29, 2006, the Supreme Court complicated these matters by declaring that the Guantanamo military