28. Newberry M.G. et al., ‘Detecting evolutionary forces in language change’, Nature, 2017.
29. Valverde S. and Sole R.V., ‘Punctuated equilibrium in the large-scale evolution of programming languages’, Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 2015.
30. Svinti V. et al., ‘New approaches for unravelling reassortment pathways’, BMC Evolutionary Biology, 2013.
31. Sample I., ‘Evolution: Charles Darwin was wrong about the tree of life’, The Guardian, 21 January 2009.
32. Background on sponging from: Krützen M. et al., ‘Cultural transmission of tool use in bottlenose dolphins’, PNAS, 2005; Morell V., ‘Why Dolphins Wear Sponges’, Science, 20 July 2011.
33. Background and quotes from author interview with Lucy Aplin, August 2017.
34. Baker K.S. et al., ‘Horizontal antimicrobial resistance transfer drives epidemics of multiple Shigella species’, Nature Communications, 2018; McCarthy A.J. et al., ‘Extensive Horizontal Gene Transfer during Staphylococcus aureus Co-colonization In Vivo’, Genome Biology and Evolution, 2014; Alirol E. et al., ‘Multidrug-resistant gonorrhea: A research and development roadmap to discover new medicines’, PLOS Medicine, 2017.
35. Gallagher J., ‘Man has “world’s worst” super-gonorrhoea’, BBC News Online, 28 March 2018; Gallagher J., ‘Super-gonorrhoea spread causes “deep concern”’, BBC News Online, 9 January 2019.
36. Alzheimer’s Society’s view on genetic testing. April 2015. https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/about-us/policy-and-influencing/what-we-think/genetic-testing; Genetic testing for cancer risk. Cancer Research UK. https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/inherited-cancer-genes-and-increased-cancer-risk/genetic-testing-for-cancer-risk
37. Middleton A., ‘Attention The Times: Prince William’s DNA is not a toy’, The Conversation, 14 June 2013. Researchers have also criticised the scientific analysis behind the story. Source: Kennett D.A, ‘The Rise and Fall of Britain’s DNA: A Tale of Misleading Claims, Media Manipulation and Threats to Academic Freedom’, Genealogy, 2018.
38. Ash L., ‘The Christmas present that could tear your family apart’, BBC News Online, 20 December 2018.
39. Clark K., ‘Scoop: 23andMe is raising up to $300M’, PitchBook, 24 July 2018; Rutherford A., ‘DNA ancestry tests may look cheap. But your data is the price’, The Guardian, 10 August 2018.
40. Cox N., ‘UK Biobank shares the promise of big data’, Nature, 10 October 2018.
41. Based on 1990 census data, Sweeney estimated 87 per cent of people could be identified. Subsequent studies revised this down to 61–63 per cent based on 1990 and 2000 data. Background: Sweeney L., ‘Simple Demographics Often Identify People Uniquely’, Carnegie Mellon University, Data Privacy Working Paper, 2000; Ohm P., ‘Broken Promises of Privacy: Responding to the Surprising Failure of Anonymization’, UCLA Law Review, 2010; Sweeney L., ‘Only You, Your Doctor, and Many Others May Know’, Technology Science, 2015.
42. Sweeney L., ‘Only You, Your Doctor, and Many Others May Know’, Technology Science, 2015.
43. Smith S., ‘Data and privacy’, Significance, 3 October 2014.
44. Background on taxi data from: Whong C., ‘FOILing NYC’s Taxi Trip Data’, 18 March 2014. https://chriswhong.com; Pandurangan V., ‘On Taxis and Rainbows’, 21 June 2014. https://tech.vijayp.ca
45. Background and quotes from: Tockar A., ‘Riding with the Stars: Passenger Privacy in the NYC Taxicab Dataset’, 15 September 2014. https://research.neustar.biz.
46. De Montjoye Y.A., ‘Unique in the Crowd: The privacy bounds of human mobility’, Scientific Reports, 2013.
47. Shahani A., ‘Smartphones Are Used To Stalk, Control Domestic Abuse Victims’, National Public Radio, 15 September 2014.
48. Hern A., ‘Fitness tracking app Strava gives away location of secret US army bases’, The Guardian, 28 January 2014.
49. Watts A.G. et al., ‘Potential Zika virus spread within and beyond India’, Journal of Travel Medicine, 2018; Bengtsson L. et al., ‘Improved Response to Disasters and Outbreaks by Tracking Population Movements with Mobile Phone Network Data: A Post-Earthquake Geospatial Study in Haiti’, PLOS Medicine, 2011; Santi P. et al., ‘Quantifying the benefits of vehicle pooling with shareability networks’, PNAS, 2014.
50. Chen M.K. and Rohla R., ‘The effect of partisanship and political advertising on close family ties’, Science, 2018; Silm S. et al., ‘Are younger age groups less segregated? Measuring ethnic segregation in activity spaces using mobile phone data’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 2017; Xiao Y. et al., ‘Exploring the disparities in park access through mobile phone data: Evidence from Shanghai, China’, Landscape and Urban Planning, 2019; Atlas of Inequality, https://inequality.media.mit.edu.
51. Conlan A.J.K. et al., ‘Measuring social networks in British primary schools through scientific engagement’, Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 2010.
52. Background on GPS brokers from: Harris R., ‘Your Apps Know Where You Were Last Night, and They’re Not Keeping It Secret’, New York Times, 10 December 2018; Signoret P., Teemo, ‘la start-up qui traque 10 millions de Français en continu’, L’Express L’Expansion, 25 August 2018; ‘Is Geospatial Data a $100 Billion Business for SafeGraph?’ Nanalyze, 22 April 2017.
53. Importantly, the target gave permission for their phone to be tracked. Source: Cox J., ‘I Gave a Bounty Hunter $300. Then He Located Our Phone’, Motherboard, 8 January 2019.
54. Scam alert: Speeding ticket email scam. Tredyffrin Police Department. 23 March 2016.
55. Background on SARS introduction from: ‘SARS Commission Final Report’, Government of Ontario, 2005; Tsang K.W. et al., ‘A Cluster of Cases of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome in Hong Kong’, The NEJM, 2003.
56. Donnelly C.A. et al., ‘Epidemiological determinants of spread of causal agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong’, The Lancet, 2003.
57. WHO Ebola Response Team, ‘Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa – The First 9 Months of the Epidemic and Forward Projections’, NEJM, 2014; Assiri A. et al., ‘Hospital Outbreak of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus’, NEJM, 2013; WHO Consultation on Clinical Aspects of Pandemic (H1N1) 2009 Influenza, ‘Clinical Aspects of Pandemic 2009 Influenza A (H1N1) Virus Infection’, NEJM, 2010.
58. Background on Willowbrook from: Rothman D.J., The Willowbrook Wars: Bringing the Mentally Disabled into the Community (Aldine Transaction, 2005); Fansiwala K., ‘The Duality of Medicine: The Willowbrook State School Experiments’, Medical Dialogue Review, 20 February 2016; Watts G., ‘Robert Wayne McCollum’, The Lancet, 2010.
59. Quoted in: Offit P., Vaccinated: One Man’s Quest to Defeat the World’s Deadliest Diseases (Harper Perennial, 2008).
60. Goldby S., ‘Experiments at the Willowbrook state school’, The Lancet, 1971.
61. Gordon R.M., The Infamous Burke and Hare: Serial Killers and Resurrectionists of Nineteenth Century Edinburgh (McFarland, 2009).
62. Transcript for NMT 1: Medical Case, 9 January 1947. Harvard Law School Library Nuremberg Trials Project.
63. Waddington C.S. et al., ‘Advancing the management and control of typhoid fever: A
