Social Organization
Western Gulls and Kittiwakes form pair-bonds and nest in colonies, some of which contain upwards of 10,000 pairs; Kittiwakes often nest on cliffs. Outside of the breeding season they are less sociable, occasionally gathering in loose aggregations when not solitary.
Description
Homosexual pairs usually build a nest in which both females lay eggs; the resulting SUPERNORMAL CLUTCH contains 4—6 eggs in Western Gulls, up to twice the number found in nests of heterosexual pairs. Some of these eggs are fertile because females in homosexual pairs occasionally copulate with males (without breaking their same-sex bond). Although eggs laid by female pairs may be smaller than those of heterosexual females, homosexual parents successfully hatch and raise chicks, sharing all parental duties.
Nonreproductive and Alternative Heterosexualities
Not all heterosexual birds in these species form lifelong, monogamous pair-bonds within which they raise their own young. About 30 percent of Kittiwake male-female pairs divorce. Some birds form polygamous trios consisting of one male bonded with two females, each with her own nest (about 3 percent of all bonds). Western Gull pairs (and rarely, single males) sometimes adopt and raise chicks that are not their own, and “stepmothering” occurs when females pair with a male that has lost his mate; foster-parenting also occurs in Kittiwakes (where about 8 percent of all chicks are adopted). In addition, many birds do not reproduce or do so only rarely: 30—40 percent of adult Western Gulls breed only once or twice in their lifetimes, and do not successfully raise any offspring, while 5 percent of all Kittiwakes that attempt to nest do not raise any young during their lives (and nearly two-thirds of all Kittiwakes never produce any offspring, usually because they die before breeding). Female Western Gulls that breed less often (or defer breeding until later in life) actually have higher survival rates than birds that reproduce more frequently. In Kittiwakes, nonbreeding birds form their own flocks or CLUBS on the outskirts of the breeding colonies. Western Gulls in heterosexual pairs also sometimes engage in nonprocreative sexual behaviors, such as REVERSE mounting (where the female mounts the male, typically without genital contact).
Some male Western Gulls are promiscuous, attempting to copulate with females other than their mates (usually birds on neighboring territories), although they are frequently unsuccessful. Occasionally a male will behave aggressively toward a female he has just mated with (nonmonogamously) and may even attack and kill her. Overall, more than 40 percent of aggressive incidents occur between members of the opposite sex. These include females defending themselves against promiscuous males, males attacking neighboring females that are courting them, and territorial disputes. Females may also refuse to copulate with their own mates, either by not allowing them to mount or by walking out from under them during mating. Some pairs, however, begin copulating even before the female’s fertile period; this also occurs in Kittiwakes, and many copulations in this species do not involve genital contact (more than 30 percent). In Kittiwakes, 15—27 percent of all heterosexual copulations are harassed and interrupted by other males. Occasionally, adult Western Gulls are violent toward chicks, who may be attacked and even killed if left alone by their parents. Kittiwake parents (especially inexperienced ones) sometimes neglect their chicks (e.g., starving them), and birds may also attack or toss their own or other parents’ chicks off cliffs. In fact, many adoptions and chick deaths in both species result from youngsters deserting or “running away” from their biological families as a result of neglect or direct attack. As many as a third of all Kittiwake chicks in some colonies abandon or are driven from their own nests. In addition, adults of both species may eat unattended eggs belonging to other parents.
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———((1986) “Interference of Copulation in a Colony of Marked Black-legged Kittiwakes.”
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