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Winkler, H., D. A. Christie, and D. Nurney (1995) “Black-rumped Flameback (
PIED KINGFISHER
IDENTIFICATION: A robin-sized, crested bird with speckled black-and-white plumage and a long bill. DISTRIBUTION: Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, India, Southeast Asia. HABITAT: Lakes and rivers. STUDY AREA: Basse Casamance region of Senegal; subspecies
BLUE-BELLIED ROLLER
IDENTIFICATION: A stocky, 14-inch bird with dark blue plumage, a long, turquoise, forked tail, and a creamy white head and breast DISTRIBUTION: West Africa. HABITAT: Savanna woodland. STUDY AREA: Basse Casamance region of Senegal.
Social Organization
Pied Kingfishers sometimes gather in flocks of 80 or more birds, and outside of the mating season they associate in small groups. Breeding birds form monogamous pairs, but there is a large population of nonbreeding males as well, many of whom help heterosexual pairs raise their young. Blue-bellied Rollers live in pairs or small groups of 3-13 birds, which are probably extended families or clans; mating may occur promiscuously among several group members.
Description
A remarkable form of ritualized sexual behavior occurs among Blue-bellied Rollers, and in some cases the participating birds are of the same sex. One bird mounts the other as in regular copulation, beating its wings and sometimes grabbing in its bill the neck or head feathers of its partner. The mounter lowers its tail while the mountee droops its wings and raises its tail, in some cases achieving cloacal (genital) contact. In almost three- quarters of the cases, mounting is reciprocal (the mountee becoming the mounter and vice versa); reciprocal mounting may be more common between birds of the opposite sex, however. Sometimes, mounting with exchange of positions is performed repeatedly, with as many as 28 mounts alternating between the partners in succession. This mounting behavior is often a ritualized display performed for other birds, and sometimes the tail movements and other gestures characteristic of full sexual behavior are more stylized or attenuated. Mounting may be accompanied by a number of dramatic aerial displays (often considered signs of aggression), including acrobatic chases, SOARS (rapid ascents with wings angled in a V-shape, just prior to being “caught” by a pursuing bird), and swoops (breathtaking plummets with folded wings). Birds may also utter loud, mechanical-sounding RATTLES as well as screaming RASP notes during mounting or the associated aerial displays.
Nonreproductive and Alternative Heterosexualities
As discussed above, there is a large segment of nonbreeders in the Pied Kingfisher population: as many as 45-60 percent of males do not mate heterosexually. Remarkably, studies have shown that the reproductive systems of primary helpers are actually physiologically suppressed, since they have reduced male hormone levels, small testes, and no sperm production. Only one in three primary helpers goes on to mate after being a helper, and it is likely that some never breed for their entire lives. In contrast, secondary helpers do not have dormant reproductive systems, but are in most cases simply unable to find female mates due to the greater proportion of males in most populations. Because secondary helpers are not genetically related to the birds they assist, a large number of Pied Kingfishers are involved in “foster-parenting.”
Sexual activity between male and female Blue-bellied Rollers is notable for its nonreproductive components: it occurs at all times of the year (not just during the breeding season), and it often involves nonprocreative REVERSE mounts or mounting without genital contact. In addition, multiple copulations—far in excess of what is