The Penguin History of Modern Russia

have an impressive degree of organization, patience and education. Russia has learned from experience about the defects of the alternatives to peaceful, gradual change: it has recent experience of civil war, world war, dictatorship and ideological intolerance.

Yet the preconditions for even a cautious optimism have yet to be met. Time, imagination and will-power will be required if progress is to be made. Russia in the twentieth century was full of surprises. It gave rise to a wholly new way of ordering political, economic and social affairs. Dozens of states adopted the Soviet compound as their model. Russia was the wonder and the horror of the entire world. That single country produced Lenin, Khrushchev and Gorbachev; it also brought forth Shostakovich, Akhmatova, Kapitsa, Sakharov and Pavlov. Its ordinary people, from the piteous inmates of the Gulag to the proud Red Army conscript-victors over Hitler, became symbols of momentous episodes in the history of our times. Russia over the past hundred years has endured extraordinary vicissitudes.

It became and then ceased to be a superpower. It was once a largely agrarian and illiterate empire and is now literate, industrial and bereft of its borderland dominions. Russia has not stopped changing. There is no reason to assume that its record in astounding itself, its neighbours and the world has come to an end.

Notes

Short titles are used in the notes. Full references will be found in the bibliography. The following abbreviations are used in notes and bibliography:

GARF — Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii

IA — Istoricheskii arkhiv

ITsKKPSS — Izvestiya Tsentral’nogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza

OA — Osobyi arkhiv

PSS — V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii

RTsKhIDNI — Rossiiskii Tsentr dlya Khraneniya i Issledovaniya Dokumentov Noveishei Istorii

SEER — Slavonic and East European Review

SVI — Shestoi s’’ezd RSDRP(b). Avgust 1917 goda. Protokoly

SVIII — Vos’moi s’’ezd RKP(b). Mart 1919 goda. Protokoly

SX — Desyatyi s’’ezd RKP(b). Mart 1921 g. Stenograficheskii otchet

SXVII — Semnadtsatyi s’’ezd VKP(b). 26 yanvarya — 10 fevralya 1934 goda. Stenograficheskii otchet

SXVIII — Vosemnadtsatyi s’’ezd. 10–21 marta 1939 goda. Stenograficheskii otchet

SXX — Dvadtsatyi s’’ezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. 14–25 fevralya 1956 goda. Stenograficheskii otchet

SXXII — Dvadtsat’ vtoroi s’’ezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. 17–31 oktyabrya 1961 goda. Stenograficheskii otchet

SXXIV — Dvadtsat’ chetvertyi s’’ezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. 30 marta — 9 aprelya 1971 goda. Stenograficheskii otchet

SXXVII — Dvadtsat’ sed’moi s’’ezd Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. 25 fevralya — 6 marta 1986 goda. Stenograficheskii otchet

TP — The Trotsky Papers, 1917–1922

VIKPSS — Voprosy istorii Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza

Introduction

1 The last serious such endeavour was M. S. Gorbachev, Perestroika. New Thinking for Our Country and the World.

2 Otto Bauer, Bolschewismus oder Sozialdemokratie? (Vienna, 1920).

3 K. Kautsky, The Dictatorship of the Proletariat; Yu. Martov, Mirovoi bol’shevizm; B. Russell, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism; T. Dan, The Origins of Bolshevism.

4 L. D. Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed.

5 I. A. Il’in, O soprotivlenii zlu siloyu; A. I. Solzhenitsyn, Letter to the Soviet Leaders and Kak nam obustroit’ Rossiyu?

6 N. Berdyaev, The Russian Idea. Ideas of a not dissimilar nature can be found in B. Kerblay, Modern Soviet Society and S. White, Political Culture and Soviet Politics.

7 R. Fulop-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism: An Examination of Cultural Life in Soviet Russia.

8 N. S. Trubetskoi, K probleme russkogo samosoznaniya: sobranie statei.

9 N. Ustryalov, Pod znakom revolyutsii. A recent work stressing the imperial and ethnic dimensions of the USSR is H. Carrere d’Encausse, Decline of an Empire.

10 L. N. Gumilev, V poiskakh vymyshlennogo tsarstva and Ritmy Evrazii.

11 E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution; B. Moore Jr, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy.

12 R. Neumann, Behemoth; M. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled; L. Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Totalitarianism.

13 M. Djilas, The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System;M. Voslensky, Nomenklatura: The Anatomy of the Soviet Ruling Class.

14 D. Bell, The End of Ideology.

15 See I. Kershaw, The Nazi Dictatorship, pp. 34–46.

16 D. Granick, Management of the Industrial Firm in the USSR, A Study in Soviet Economic Planning; J. Berliner, Factory and Manager in the USSR. The journal Soviet Studies regularly carried accounts of political, economic and social life below the level of the Kremlin.

17 R. Suny, The Baku Commune.

18 R. Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution.

19 D. Koenker, Moscow Workers; S. A. Smith, Red Petrograd.

20 F. Benvenuti, The Bolsheviks and the Red Army; O. Figes, Peasant Russia, Civil War; R. Stites, Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution.

21 R. W. Davies, The Soviet Economy in Turmoil; M. Lewin, The Making of the Soviet System.

22 F. Benvenuti, Fuoco sui Sabotatori!; D. Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialization; L. Siegelbaum. Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935–1941.

23 V. Buldakov, Krasnaya smuta.