Good Calories, Bad Calories

Schoenheimer: Rittenberg and Schoenheimer 1937. Researchers agreed: See, for instance, Quintao et al. 1971.

“a few questions…”: Hoffman 1979. “…members of the Rotary Club…” and “a similar picture”: Keys 1994.

“fatty diet…”: Keys 1994. “Direct evidence…”: Keys 1952.

Keys’s chain of observations: Keys 1994.

1950 report from Sweden: Malmros 1950. Similar phenomena: See Keys 1975. Keys concluded: Keys 1994. Skeptics observed: See, for instance, Mann 1957.

Keys argued the same proposition: Keys 1953. “remarkable relationship…”: Keys and Anderson 1955:189.

Researchers wouldn’t buy it: Yerushalmy and Hilleboe 1957. “magic method…”: Gould 1996:272.

“…not very profitable game”: Mann 1957.

“This causality…”: Ibid. 19 “uncritically…” and “…worse than useless”: Yerushalmy and Hilleboe 1957.

Clinically meaningless: See, for instance, Howell et al. 1997.

Keys insisted that all fat: A good example is Keys et al. 1955.

Vegetable oil vs. animal fats: Kinsell et al. 1952; Groen et al. 1952.

Keys eventually accepted: Anderson, Keys, and Grande 1957.

This saturation factor: Kinsell et al. 1958; Ahrens, Insull, et al. 1957. “handicap to clear thinking”: Ahrens 1957. Fat content of beef, lard, and chicken fat: USDA n.d. 20 AHA opposed Keys: Page et al. 1957.

A new AHA report: AHA 1961. “acceptable compromise” and “some undue pussy-footing”: Anon. 1960.

Time cover story: Anon. 1961.

CHAPTER TWO:

THE INADEQUACY OF LESSER EVIDENCE

Epigraph. “Another reason…”: Friedman 1969:77.

“unmanageable proportions…”: Kaunitz 1977. “totality of data”: Stamler et al. 1972:45. “two strikingly polar attitudes…”: Blackburn 1975.

“It must still be admitted…”: Dawber 1978. “overwhelming evidence…”: Dawber 1980:141.

“highest level”: Sackett 2002.

“final scientific proof”: Anthony Gotto in Select Committee 1977d:312.

Wall Street Journal reported: Bishop 1961.

“dotting the final i”: Anon. 1964b. 24 “The absence of final…”: Quoted in Blakeslee and Keys 1966:10.

Popper’s observations: Popper 1979 (“The method of science…,” 81; infinite wrong conjectures, 15).

“each new research…”: Keys 1957. Cholesterol and heart disease among Japanese men: Marmot et al. 1975.

Navajo Indians: Page et al. 1956. Irish immigrants: Trulson et al. 1964. African nomads: Mann et al. 1964. Swiss Alpine farmers: Gsell and Mayer 1962. Benedictine and Trappist Monks: Groen et al. 1962. Explained away by Keys: Keys 1963; Keys 1975.

Mann examined the Masai: Mann et al. 1964. The Samburu had low cholesterol: Shaper 1962. “fully as high…” and “It has been estimated…”: Keys 1963.

“feed-back mechanism…”: Keys 1975.

Mann’s further research: Mann et al. 1972. Masai moved into Nairobi: Day et al. 1976. “The peculiarities of those primitive nomads…”: Keys 1975.

“The data scarcely warrant…”: Keys 1975. Roseto study: Stout et al. 1964. “few conclusions…”: Keys 1966.

Framingham risk factors, “reasonably typical”: Dawber 1962.

Cholesterol and women, “no predictive value”: Kannel et al. 1971.

Framingham dietary research: Kannel and Gordon 1968 (“promised to be…” 2; “cautionary note…,” 15); interviews, George Mann and Tavia Gordon.

Puerto Rico study: Garcia-Palmieri et al. 1980. Honolulu: Yano et al. 1978; McGee et al. 1984. Chicago: Paul et al. 1963. Tecumseh: Nichols et al. 1976. Evans County: Stulb et al. 1965. Israel: Kahn et al. 1969.

“The human understanding…”: Bacon 1994:58.

Western Electric study: Paul et al. 1963.

Stamler’s return to Western Electric: Shekelle et al. 1981.

“The new report…”: Cohn 1981. “The message of these findings…”: Brody 1981d. “The Cholesterol Facts”: LaRosa et al. 1990. Footnote. Trulson et al. 1964; Kushi et al. 1985.

Risks of changing the fats consumed: Ahrens 1979a.

Details of Seven Countries Study: Keys 1980. $200,000 support: Anon. 1961.

Results were first published: Keys 1970. Mortality rates: Keys 1980:65.

Three lessons: Keys 1980:332–35.