22. On the features of the historical-ideological profile of the Short Course and the revision of its main tenets within the Soviet historical field in the 1960s and 1970s, see Roger D. Markwick, Rewriting History in Soviet Russia—the Politics of Revisionist Historiography, 1954-1974, foreword by Donald J. Raleigh (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001). Kenneth Jowitt employs the formulation by Max Weber in New World Disorder, p. 135.
23. Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, New Myth, New World—from Nietzsche to Stalinism (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), p. 238.
24. Stephen F. Cohen, “Bolshevism and Stalinism,” in Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977), pp. 12-13.
25. Tucker, The Soviet Political Mind, p. xi.
26. E. A. Rees, “Introduction,” in The Sovietization of Eastern Europe: New Perspectives on the Postwar Period, ed. Balazs Apor, Peter Apor, and E. A. Rees (Washington, D.C.: New Academia Publishing, 2008), p. 21.
27. Hans Maier, “Political Religions and Their Images: Soviet Communism, Italian Fascism and German National Socialism,” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 7, no. 3 (Sept. 2006): 267-81.
28. Corney, “What Is to Be Done,” p. 273.
29. Polly Jones, “Introduction: The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization,” in The Dilemmas of De- Stalinization: Negotiating Cultural and Social Change in the Khrushchev Era (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 12.
30. Miriam Dobson, “’Show the Bandit-Enemies No Mercy!’: Amnesty, Criminality and Public Response in 1953,” in The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization, ed. Jones, p. 22.
31. Jones, The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization, p. 13.
32. Zubok, Zhivago’s Children, pp. 71 and 58.
33. For Khrushchev, the definitive biography is William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002).
34. Polly Jones, “From the Secret Speech to the Burial of Stalin: Real and Ideal Responses to De- Stalinization,” in The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization, p. 41.
35. Robert D. English, Russia and the Idea of the West: Gorbachev, Intellectuals, and the End of the Cold War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 109.
36. One of the best books on this topic remains Wolfgang Leonhard, Three Faces of Marxism: The Political Concepts of Soviet Marxism, Maoism, and Humanist Marxism (New York: Paragon Books, 1979), especially the part dealing with the challenge of humanist Marxism, pp. 258-352. For a comprehensive approach to the role of Marxist revisionism, see Kolakowski, Main Currents; and Andrzej Walicki, Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995).
37. Kolakowski quoted in Stanley Pierson, Leaving Marxism: Studies in the Dissolution of an Ideology (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001), pp. 134-35.
38. Stanislav Rassadin, the creator of the concept shestidesiatniki, quoted in Zubok, Zhivago’s Children, p. 162.
39. Two classics on Marxist revisionism in Eastern Europe are Leopold Labedz, ed., Revisionism: Essays on the History of Marxist Ideas (New York: Praeger 1962); and Leonhard, Three Faces of Marxism.
40. Jan Weilgohs and Detlef Pollack, “Comparative Perspectives on Dissent and Opposition to Communist Rule,” in Dissent and Opposition in Communist Eastern Europe: Origins of Civil Society and Democratic Transition (Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2004), pp. 231-64.
41. Jacek Kuron and Karol Modzelewski were arrested for their involvement in the distribution of this document. See Barbara Falk, The Dilemmas of Dissidence in East-Central Europe: Citizen Intellectuals and Philosopher Kings (Budapest: Central European University, 2003), p. 17; Jacek Kuron, La foi et la faute: A la rencontre et hors du communisme (Paris: Fayard, 1991).
42. Mikhail Gorbachev and Zdenek Mlynar, Conversations with Gorbachev: On Perestroika, the Prague Spring, foreword by Archie Brown and Mikhail Gorbachev (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), pp. 56-58.
43. See Adam Michnik, Letters from Prison and Other Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 135.
44. Jones, “Introduction,” in The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization, p. 5.
45. Jones, “From the Secret Speech,” in ibid., p. 41.
46. Jones, “Introduction,” in ibid. For example, during the first years after Stalin’s death, there was in Moscow a proliferation of “kompany—circles of friends, informal groups consisting mostly of educated people in their twenties and thirties…. The large groups of friends became a substitute for ‘publishing houses, salons, billboards, confession booths, concert halls, libraries, museums, counseling groups, sewing circles, knitting clubs, chambers of commerce, bars, clubs, restaurants, coffeehouses, dating agencies, and seminars in literature, history, philosophy, linguistics, economics, genetics, physics, music, and the arts.’” These informal groups represented one source of the rebirth of civil society in the Soviet Union. See Zubok, Zhivago’s Children, pp. 47-48.
47. See Stanley Pierson’s chapter on Leszek Kolakowski’s intellectual journey from revisionism to dissent in Leaving Marxism, pp. 128-74; Robert A. Gorman, Biographical Dictionary of Neo-Marxism (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985), pp. 232-34.
48. Zubok, Zhivago’s Children, pp. 214-15.
49. Karl Korsch, Marxisme et philosophie (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1964), p. 39. For what concerns Korsch’s philosophical-political outlook and the contemporary meaning of the Hegelian-Marxist radicalism, see: Karl Korsch, Marxisme et contre-revolution (Paris: Seuil, 1975); Karl Korsch, L’anti-Kautsky (La conception materialiste de l’histoire) (Paris: Champ Libre, 1973); Paul Breines, “Korsch’s Road to Marx,” Telos, no. 26; and Furio Cerutti, “Lukacs ad Korsch: On the Emancipatory Significance of the Dialectics in Critical Marxism,” Telos, no. 26, originally published in Oskar Negt, ed., Aktualitat und Folgen der Philosophie Hegels (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1970). Generally, regarding critical Marxism, see Perry Andreson, Sur le marxisme occidental (Paris: Maspero, 1977); Predrag Vranicki, Storia del marxismo, vols. 1-2 (Roma: Editori Riuniti, 1972); M Lowy, Pour une sociologie des intellectuals revolutionnaires—L’evolution politique de Lukacs, 1909-1929 (Paris: Maspero, 1976); Neil McInnes, The Western Marxists (Newport, N.Y.: Free Press, 1972). We have to mention here the relevant contributions of such authors as Andrew Arato, Dick Howard, Jean-Michel Palmier, Paul Piccone, Jean-Marie Vincent, Pierre V. Zima, Richard J. Bernstein, Aldo Zanardo, Albercht Wellmer, N. Tertulian, and Agnes Heller. I published in Romania several studies on Western Marxism in the Journal of Philosophy and a book on The New Left and the Frankfurt School (Bucharest: Editura Politica, 1976).
50. For the ideological foundations of the East German Communist regime, see Leslie Holmes, “The Significance of Marxist Dissent to the Emergence of Postcommunism in the GDR,” in The Road to Disillusion: From Critical Marxism to Post-communism in Eastern Europe, ed. Raymond Taras (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), pp. 57-80; and Mary Fulbrook, The People’s State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005).
51. Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism, vol. 3: The Breakdown (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978).
52. English, Russia and the Idea of the West, p. 122.
53. Georgy Arbatov quoted in ibid., p. 50.
54. Alexandre Zinovyev, Nous et l’Occident (Lausanne: L’Age d’Homme, 1981), p. 13.
55. Dick Howard, The Specter of Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), pp. vii-xvii.
