52. Minutes, CFBM, Feb. 24, 1948, UC; Underhill to Bradbury, Mar. 11, 1948, Underhill papers, LANL.
53. Bevatron: Hewlett and Duncan (1990), 249–51; Seidel (1983), 394–97.
54. Minutes, Apr. 23–25, 1948, GAC no. 9, CIC/DOE; Seidel (1983), 394.
55. Cooksey to Loomis, Mar. 24, 1948, folder 10, carton 46, EOL.
56. Childs (1968), 401.
57. Report, May 9–26, 1947, no. 356, JCAE.
58. Hickenlooper to Lawrence, Feb. 21, 1948, and Lawrence to Hickenlooper, Feb. 25, 1948, folder 26, carton 32, EOL.
59. Lilienthal (1964), 332.
60. Minutes, Apr. 27, 1948, folder 6, box 172, Neylan papers; Apr. 27, 1948, memos, Sproul papers.
61. Alvarez was an alternate on the panel. Interest in RW: Hamilton to Nichols, “Radioactive Warfare,” Dec. 31, 1946, folder 19, carton 32, EOL.
62. A few weeks earlier, Lawrence had presented his ideas to the service secretaries at the Pentagon and Secretary of Defense James Forrestal. Walter Millis, ed., The Forrestal Diaries (Putnam, 1952), 399.
63. David Lilienthal, The Journals of David E. Lilienthal, vol. 4, The Road to Change, 1955–1959 (Harper and Row, 1969), 205; Lilienthal (1964), 349.
64. Lilienthal (1964), 349.
65. Minutes, Feb. 6–8, 1948, GAC no. 8, CIC/DOE; Hershberg (1993), 333.
66. Hershberg, 356.
67. Entries for Sept. 8–10, 1947, Lawrence day books, carton 11, EOL.
68. “Meeting Notes on Radiological Warfare Conferences,” June 26, 1948, no. 70749, CIC/DOE.
69. ITMOJRO, 805.
70. Teller to Mayer, n.d. [fall 1946], folder 5, box 3, Mayer papers.
71. LA-643: H-bomb Chronology, Jan. 1, 1953, no. DLXXXIV, 15–16, JCAE; Rhodes (1995), 305–7; Mark (1974), 8–9.
72. Fitzpatrick (1998), 128.
73. The only encouraging sign on the horizon was the possibility that a solid compound—lithium deuteride—might substitute for the cryogenically cooled liquid deuterium, which seemed impractical for use in a weapon.
74. Minutes, Oct. 10, 1947, GAC no. 6, CIC/DOE.
75. Oppenheimer to Lilienthal, June 6, 1948, GAC no. 10, CIC/DOE. Booster: Minutes, July 28–29, 1947, GAC no. 5, no. 30337, CIC/DOE.
76. Webster to AEC, Dec. 2, 1948, no. 71763, CIC/DOE.
77. Long-range objectives panel: Oppenheimer to Parsons, June 18, 1948, and Carpenter to Greenewalt, June 9, 1948, file 184, RG 330, records of the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD/NARA), National Archives; Nichols (1987), 264.
78. Oppenheimer sent the report to Nichols that Aug. H-bomb Chronology, no. DLXXXIV, 16–17, JCAE.
79. Bradbury to McCormack, Sept. 7, 1948, and Teller to Bradbury, “The Russian Atomic Plan,” Sept. 3, 1948, no. 125268, CIC/DOE.
80. Fuchs’s new Soviet control officer, Alexander Feklisov, would confirm in his memoirs that Fuchs at these meetings gave him some ninety secret documents—including “the diagram of the principle behind the hydrogen bomb.” Alexander Feklisov, The Man Behind the Rosenbergs (Enigma Books, 2001), 219. The bomb that Fuchs outlined was considerably more sophisticated than the device based on Fermi’s lectures that the spy had given Harry Gold a year and a half earlier. While the new design still employed a gun-type primary, three different stages of thermonuclear burning—involving sequentially increasing amounts of tritium and deuterium—were represented in the drawing. The effect of compression in increasing the efficiency of the thermonuclear reaction was also noted for the first time in the documents that Fuchs gave the Russians. Soviet Super: Albright and Kunstel (1997), 346 fn.; “Construction of the DTB,” June [?] 1948, in possession of the author. The author would like to thank Joe Albright and Marcia Kunstel for a copy of the Fuchs-Feklisov document, Herb York for comments on its significance, and Cole Goldberg for a translation of the document. Soviet H-bomb: German Goncharov, “Thermonuclear Milestones: Beginnings of the Soviet H-Bomb Program,” Physics Today 49, no. 11 (1996), 50–54; Albright and Kunstel (1997), 187–88; Holloway (1994), 294–319.
81. Estimates of Soviet atomic bomb: Borden to Walker, May 20, 1952, no. 2814, JCAE; Herken (1980), 112; Charles Ziegler, “Intelligence Assessments of Soviet Atomic Capability, 1945–1949: Myths, Monopolies, and Maskirovka,” Intelligence and National Security 12, no. 4, (1997), 1–24.
82. Cabell to Chief of Staff, Dec. 12, 1947, box 4, series 337, Headquarters records, U.S. Air Force, R.G. 341, National Archives (USAF/NARA).
83. Strauss (1962), 201–2; Strauss to Secretary of Defense, Mar. 17, 1948, no. 69943, CIC/DOE.
84. Long-range detection: Charles Ziegler and David Jacobson, Spying Without Spies: Origins of America’s Secret Nuclear Surveillance System (Praeger, 1995), 63–70.
85. ITMOJRO, 47.
86. Minutes, AEC-MLC meeting, Jan. 7, 1948, “Agendas and Minutes” folder, series 1, AEC/NARA.
87. The AEC later obligated the amount. Strauss (1962), 204.
88. The GAC “heartily concurred” with the prewar policy, urging that it be further liberalized. Hewlett and Duncan (1990), 81; Stern (1969), 115.
89. “I don’t think, actually, [Strauss] sensed at all that this was no way to treat his brother Commissioners.” Lilienthal (1964), 234.
90. Ibid., 240.
91. Hoover to Tolson, Tamm, et al., Oct. 30, 1947, sec. 2, Frank Oppenheimer file, FBI; “Ex-FBI Man Testifies Russ Tried to Get Atom Data from Oppenheimer in 1942,” San Francisco Chronicle, Oct. 31, 1945; U.S. Congress, HUAC, Hearings Regarding the Communist Infiltration of the Motion Picture Industry (1947 HUAC hearings), 80th Congress, 1st sess., Oct. 1947, 514–22.
92. HUAC’s efforts to expose a Soviet spy ring in the film industry had been “a complete flop,” Hoover advised Clark. Hoover to Tolson, Tamm, et al., Oct. 30, 1947, Frank Oppenheimer file, FBI. Hoover’s memo also coyly put pressure once again on Clark to hand down indictments in the CINRAD investigation.
93. A HUAC staffer told the Associated Press that the bureau had approved release of Russell’s story about the Chevalier incident “ahead of time.” San Francisco Chronicle, Oct. 31, 1947.
94. In a letter to Consodine, Groves thought “Oppie’s remarks regarding the treasonable acts was especially interesting. I would appreciate hearing from you as to your reaction and recollections if any on the whole affair.” Groves to Consodine, Nov. 5, 1947, series 5, MED/NARA.
95. “Oakland Inquiry into Communism Opens Monday,” San Francisco Chronicle, Nov. 1, 1947.
96. Schwartz (1998), 410.
97. Stern (1969), 111.
98. Kimball to Hoover, Oct. 30, 1947, sec. 4, Chevalier file, FBI.
99. Barrett (1951), 31; Scobie (1970), 201.
100. So secretive a figure was Combs that journalists routinely misspelled his name. However, it was Combs who organized the Tenney Committee
