Nitschke, Wysiedlenie, 182, 230. Compare Jankowiak, who gives 2,189,286 as a total for 1946 and 1947 (including only those in registered transports); see Wysiedlenie, 501. Death tolls in transports to the British sector are given in Frank, Expelling, 258-259; and Ahonen, People, 141.
27 Regarding the four hundred thousand Germans who died, see the original estimate in Vertreibung, 40-41; the agreement in Nitschke, Wysiedlenie, 231, and Borodziej, Niemcy, 11; the discussion and implicit endorsement in Overmans, “Personelle Verluste,” 52, 59, 60; and the critique of exaggeration in Haar, “Entstehensgeschichte,” 262-270. Ahonen estimates six hundred thousand deaths; see People, 140.
28 See the discussion of the difference between policies of deliberate murder and other forms of mortality in the Introduction and the Conclusion.
29 Simons in Eastern Europe introduces the geoethnic issues well.
30 On the relationship between the war and the communist takeovers generally, see Abrams, “Second World War”; Gross, “Social Consequences”; and Simons, Eastern Europe.
31 Secretary of State James Byrnes and the shifting US position are discussed in Ahonen, After the Expulsion, 26-27. See also Borodziej, Niemcy, 70.
32 Quotation: Brandes, Weg, 437. See also Kersten, “Forced,” 81; Sobor- Swiderska, Berman, 202; and Toranska, Oni, 273.
33 See Snyder, Reconstruction.
34 Documentation of the UPA’s plans for and actions toward Poles can be found in TsDAVO 3833/1/86/6a; 3833/1/131/13-14; 3833/1/86/19-20; and 3933/3/1/60. Of related interest are DAR 30/1/16=USHMM RG- 31.017M-1; DAR 301/1/5=USHMM RG-31.017M-1; and DAR 30/1/4=USHMM RG-31.017M-1. These OUN-B and UPA wartime declarations coincide with postwar interrogations (see GARF, R-9478/1/398) and recollections of Polish survivors (on the massacre of 12-13 July 1943, for example, see OKAW, II/737, II/1144, II/2099, II/2650, II/953, and II/775) and Jewish survivors (for example, ZIH 301/2519; and Adini, Dubno: sefer zikaron, 717-718). The fundamental study is now Motyka, Ukrainska partyzantka. See also Il’iushyn, OUN-UPA, and Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism. I sought to explain this conflict in “Causes,” Reconstruction, “Life and Death,” and Sketches.
35 On the 780,000 Poles shipped to communist Poland, see Slivka, Deportatsii, 25. On the 483,099 dispatched from communist Poland to Soviet Ukraine, see Cariewskaja, Teczka specjalna, 544. On the one hundred thousand Jews, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael, 40. For a discussion of Operation Vistula, see Snyder, Reconstruction; and Snyder, “To Resolve.”
36 On the 182,543 Ukrainians deported from Soviet Ukraine to the Gulag, see Weiner, “Nature,” 1137. On the 148,079 Red Army veterans, see Polian, “Violence,” 129. See also, generally, Applebaum, Gulag, 463.
37 For further details regarding the 140,660 people resettled by force, see Snyder, Reconstruction; or Snyder, “To Resolve.”
38 Snyder, Reconstruction; and Snyder, “To Resolve”; Motyka, Ukrainska partyzantka , 535. See also Burds, “Agentura.”
39 Polian, Against Their Will, 166-168. In Operation South some 35,796 people were deported, on the night of 5 July 1949, from territories that the Soviets had annexed from Romania.
40 Polian, Against Their Will, 134.
41 See Polian, Against Their Will, 134-155, for all of the cited figures. See also Naimark, Fires, 96; Lieberman, Terrible Fate, 206-207; and Burleigh, Third Reich, 749.
42 On the eight million people returned to the Soviet Union, see Polian, “Violence,” 127. On the twelve million Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Poles, see Gerlach (Kalkulierte Morde, 1160), who has examined these matters closely and estimates a minimum of three million displacements in Belarus alone.
43 Weiner (“Nature,” 1137) notes that the Soviets reported killing 110,825 people as Ukrainian nationalists between February 1944 and May 1946. The NKVD estimated that 144,705 Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, and Karachai died as a result of deportation or shortly after resettlement (by 1948); see Lieberman, Terrible Fate, 207.
44 Survivors of the famine mention this in their memoirs. See Potichnij, “1946–1947 Famine,” 185.
45 See Mastny, Cold War, 30. On Zhdanov’s heart attack, see Sebag Montefiore, Court, 506.
CHAPTER 11: STALINIST ANTI-SEMITISM
1 On the murder, see Rubenstein, Pogrom, 1. On Tsanava, see Mavrogordato, “Lowlands,” 527; and Smilovitsky, “Antisemitism,” 207.
2 On the Black Book of Soviet Jewry, see Kostyrchenko, Shadows, 68. On the stars, see Weiner, “Nature,” 1150; and Weiner, Making Sense, 382. On the synagogue used to store grain, see ZIH/1644. On the ashes from Babi Yar, see Rubenstein, Pogrom, 38. See also, generally, Veidlinger, Yiddish Theater, 277.
3 Rubenstein, Pogrom, 35.
4 On Crimea, see Redlich, War, 267; and Redlich, Propaganda, 57. See also Lustiger, Stalin, 155, 192; Luks, “Bruche,” 28; and Veidlinger, “Soviet Jewry,” 9-10.
5 On the state secret, see Lustiger, Stalin, 108. On the decorations for bravery, see Weiner, “Nature,” 1151; and Lustiger, Stalin, 138.
6 These figures were discussed in earlier chapters and will be again in the Conclusion. Regarding Jewish deaths in the USSR, see Arad, Soviet Union, 521 and 524. Filimoshin (“Ob itogakh,” 124) gives an estimate of 1.8 million civilians deliberately killed under German occupation; to this I would add about a million starved prisoners of war and about four hundred thousand undercounted deaths from the siege of Leningrad. So, with both civilians and prisoners of war included, and very roughly, I
7 Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Josif Stalin, “Declaration Concerning Atrocities Made at the Moscow Conference,” 30 October 1943. This was part of the Moscow Declaration.
8 On the “sons of the nation,” see Arad, Soviet Union, 539. On Khrushchev, see Salomini, L’Union, 242; and Weiner, Making Sense, 351.
9 Thoughtful introductions to postwar Soviet culture are Kozlov, “Soviet Literary Audiences”; and Kozlov, “Historical Turn.”
10 On the seventy thousand Jews permitted to leave Poland for Israel, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael, 49. On Koestler, see Kostyrchenko, Shadows, 102.
11 On Rosh Hashanah and the synagogue, see Veidlinger, “Soviet Jewry,” 13-16; and Szajnok, Polska a Izrael, 159. On Zhemchuzhina, see Rubenstein, Pogrom, 46. On Gorbman, see Luks, “Bruche,” 34. On the policy turn generally, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael, 40, 82, 106, 111-116.
12 On the Pravda article, see Kostyrchenko, Shadows, 152. On the decreased number of Jews in high party positions (thirteen percent to four percent from 1945 to 1952), see Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm, 352. The Grossman quotation is from Chandler’s translation of Everything Flows.
13 On the dissolution of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, see Kostyrchenko, Shadows, 104. For the train quotation, see Der Nister, Family
