Bloodlands

Mashber, 71. For the MGB report, see Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm, 327.

14 Molotov quotation: Gorlizki, Cold Peace, 76. See also Redlich, War, 149.

15 Redlich, War, 152; Rubenstein, Pogrom, 55-60.

16 On the one hundred thousand Jews from the Soviet Union, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael, 40.

17 This was true of most of the postwar regimes, including the Czechoslovak, Romanian, and Hungarian.

18 Banac, With Stalin Against Tito, 117-142; Kramer, Konsolidierung, 81-84. See also Gaddis, United States.

19 On Gomulka and Berman, see Sobor-Swiderska, Berman, 219, 229, 240; Paczkowski, Trzy twarze, 109; and Toranska, Oni, 295- 296.

20 On the exchange between Stalin and Gomulka, see Naimark, “Gomulka and Stalin,” 244. Quotation: Sobor-Swiderska, Berman, 258.

21 For the Smolar quotation and generally, see Shore, “Jezyk,” 56.

22 Shore, “Jezyk,” 60. All of that said, there were Polish-Jewish historians who did much valuable research on the Holocaust in the postwar years, some of it indispensable for the present study.

23 This was part of the slogan of one of the more striking propaganda posters, executed by Wlodzimierz Zakrzewski.

24 Consulte Toranska, Oni, 241, 248

25 Gniazdowski, “Ustalic liczbe,” 100-104 and passim.

26 On the Soviet ambassador, see Sobor-Swiderska, Berman, 202; and Paczkowski, Trzy twarze, 114. For the percentage of high-ranking Ministry of Public Security officers who were Jewish by self-declaration or origin, see Eisler, “1968,” 41.

27 Proces z vedenim, 9 and passim; Lukes, “New Evidence,” 171.

28 Toranska, Oni, 322-323.

29 See Shore, “Children.”

30 This explanation of the absence of a communist blood purge in Poland can be found inter alia in Luks, “Bruche,” 47. One Polish communist leader apparently murdered another during the war; this too might have bred caution.

31 Paczkowski, Trzy twarze, 103.

32 The Soviet Union did annex the Kuril Islands.

33 Weinberg, World at Arms, 81.

34 Quotation: Sebag Montefiore, Court, 536.

35 Service, Stalin, 554. On central Asia, see Brown, Rise and Fall, 324.

36 Kramer, “Konsolidierung,” 86-90.

37 The argument about the difference between the 1950s and the 1930s is developed in Zubok, Empire, 77. See also Gorlizki, Cold Peace, 97.

38 On Shcherbakov, see Brandenberger, National Bolshevism, 119 and passim; Kuromiya, “Jews,” 523, 525; and Zubok, Empire, 7.

39 On the Victory Day parade, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 193. On Etinger, see Brent, Plot, 11. See also Lustiger, Stalin, 213. Stalin’s concern with medical terrorism dated back to at least 1930; see Prystaiko, Sprava, 49.

40 On Karpai, see Brent, Plot, 296.

41 Lukes, “New Evidence,” 165.

42 Ibid., 178-180; Lustiger, Stalin, 264.

43 For the quotation and the proportion (eleven out of fourteen defendants of Jewish origin), see Proces z vedenim, 44-47, at 47. On the denunciations, see Margolius Kovaly, Cruel Star, 139.

44 For Slansky’s confession, see Proces z vedenim, 66, 70, 72. For the death penalty and the hangman, see Lukes, “New Evidence,” 160, 185. On Margolius, see Margolius Kovaly, Cruel Star, 141.

45 On Poland, see Paczkowski, Trzy twarze, 162.

46 Quotation: Brent, Plot, 250.

47 Kostyrchenko, Shadows, 264; Brent, Plot, 267. On the dance, see Service, Stalin, 580.

48 On Mikhoels as Lear, see Veidlinger, Yiddish Theater.

49 For “every Jew … ,” see Rubenstein, Pogrom, 62. For “their nation had been saved … ,” see Brown, Rise and Fall, 220.

50 Quotations: Kostyrchenko, Shadows, 290. See also Lustiger, Stalin, 250.

51 On Karpai, see Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm, 466; and Brent, Plot, 296.

52 On the drafting and redrafting, see Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm , 470-478. On Grossman, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 196. See also Luks, “Bruche,” 47, The Grossman quotation is from Life and Fate at 398.

53 On Ehrenburg, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 197.

54 For the rumors, see Brandenberger, “Last Crime,” 202. For the number of doctors, see Luks, “Bruche,” 42.

55 Khlevniuk, “Stalin as dictator,” 110, 118. On Stalin’s nonappearance at factories, farms, and government offices after the Second World War, see Service, Stalin, 539.

56 On Stalin’s security chiefs, see Brent, Plot, 258.

57 Stalin ordered beatings on 13 November; see Brent, Plot, 224. On the trial, see Lustiger, Stalin, 250.

58 For details on the “anti-Zionist campaign” of 1968, see Stola, Kampania antysyjonistyczna ; and Paczkowski, Pol wieku.

59 Rozenbaum, “March Events,” 68.

60 On the earlier Soviet practice, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael, 160.

61 Stola, “Hate Campaign,” 19, 31. On the “fifth column, ” see Rozenbaum, “1968,” 70.

62 Stola, “Hate Campaign,” 20.

63 For the figure of 2,591 people arrested, see Stola, “Hate Campaign,” 17. For the Gdansk railway station, see Eisler, “1968,” 60.

64 See Judt, Postwar, 422-483; and Simons, Eastern Europe.

65 Brown, Rise and Fall, 396.

CONCLUSION: HUMANITY

1 Compare Moyn, “In the Aftermath.” The interpretations here arise from arguments that are documented in the chapters; the annotation is therefore limited.

2 Perhaps a million people died in the German camps (as opposed to the death facilities and shooting and starvation sites). See Orth, System.

3 Compare Keegan, Face of Battle, 55; and Gerlach and Werth, “State Violence,” 133.