Bloodlands

4 Most of the remainder of those who starved were in Kazakhstan. I am counting the deaths in Ukraine as intended, and those in Kazakhstan as foreseeable. Future research might change the estimation of intentionality.

5 This and the below quotation follow Robert Chandler’s 2010 translation of Everything Flows, unpublished as I write. See also Life and Fate at 29.

6 A sustained discussion of the moral economy of land and murder is Kiernan, Blood and Soil.

7 Mao’s China exceeded Hitler’s Germany in the famine of 1958–1960, which killed some thirty million people.

8 For “belligerent complicity,” see Furet, Fascism and Communism, 2. Compare Edele, “States,” 348. Hitler quotation: Luck, “Partisanbekampfung,” 228.

9 Todorov, Memoire du mal, 90.

10 Milgram, “Behavior Study,” still repays reading.

11 Kolakowski, Main Currents, 43.

12 On international bystanding, see Power, Problem.

13 Fest, Das Gesicht, 108, 162.

14 As Harold James notes, theories of violent modernization actually fare badly in purely economic terms; see Europe Reborn, 26. Buber-Neumann quotation: Under Two Dictators, 35.

15 The most significant German crime in Soviet Russia was the deliberate starvation of Leningrad, in which about a million people died. The Germans killed a relatively small number of Jews in Soviet Russia, perhaps sixty thousand. They also killed at least a million prisoners of war from Soviet Russia in the Dulags and the Stalags. These people are usually reckoned as military losses in Soviet and Russian estimates; since I am counting them as victims of a deliberate killing policy, I am increasing the estimate of 1.8 million in Filimoshin, “Ob itogakh,” 124. I believe that the Russian estimate for deaths at Leningrad is too low by about four hundred thousand people, so I add that as well. If Boris Sokolov is right, and Soviet military losses were far higher than the conventional estimates, then most of the people in the higher estimates were soldiers. If Ellman and Maksudov are right, and Soviet military losses were in fact lower, then most of these people were civilians: often civilians not under German occupation. See Sokolov, “How to Count,” 451-457; and Ellman, “Soviet Deaths,” 674- 680.

16 On the deaths of 516,841 Gulag inmates, see Zemskov, “Smertnost’,” 176. On the four million Soviet citizens in the Gulag (including the special settlements), see Khlevniuk, Gulag, 307.

17 Brandon and Lower estimate 5.5-7 million total losses in Soviet Ukraine during the war; see “Introduction,” 11.

18 For an introduction to the memory culture, see Goujon, “Memorial.”

19 Here as elsewhere in the Conclusion, discussions of numbers are documented in the chapters.

20 Janion, Do Europy. On Berman, see Gniazdowski, “‘Ustalic liczbe.”

INDEX

AB Aktion (Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion, Extraordinary Pacification Action)

Abakumov, Viktor

Adamczyk, Wieslaw

Aged. See Elderly

Aginskaia, Perla

Akhmatova, Anna

Allilueva, Svetlana

Angielczyk, Czeslawa

Anielewicz, Mordechai

Anschluss

Anti-Comintern Pact (1936)

Anti-Semitism

Belarus and

in Britain

in Czechoslovakia

Hitler, Adolf and

National Socialism and

in Poland

Soviet Union and

Stalin, Joseph and

in United States

Arajs, Viktor

Archangelsk, Soviet Union

Arendt, Hannah

Armenians

Aronson, Stanislaw

Aryanization

Auschwitz

Austria

Babi Yar

Babushkina, Evgenia

Bach-Zelewski, Erich von dem

Backe, Herbert

Baltic States See also Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia

Balts

See also Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians

Balytskyi, Vsevolod

BBC. See British Broadcasting Corporation

Belzec

Bechtolsheim, Gustav von

Belarus

anti-Semitism in

Final Solution and

Final Solution in

German-Soviet war (1941–1945) and

Great Terror of 1937–1938 and

Hitler, Adolf and

Holocaust and

Jews, murder of in

Jews in

Lenin, Vladimir and

Minsk

nationalism and

partisan warfare in

Polish Jews in