Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity

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Notes to Part I

When no specific references are noted for a particular species in part 1, the information and sources will be found in the profile itself in part 2. When a note is included for a profiled species (e.g., to provide more detailed information), the citation format includes the species name, author, year, and (in most cases) page numbers of the source, referring to the full references in the profile. References for species that are not profiled in part 2 are included directly in notes.

Introduction

1. Einstein, A. (1930) “What I Believe,” Forum and Century 84(4):193-94.

Chapter 1. The Birds and the Bees

1

Haldane, J. B. S. (1928) Possible Worlds and Other Papers, p. 298 (New York: Harper & Brothers).

2

Animal names that are capitalized refer to a species or group of closely related species that is profiled in part 2, or whose references are included in the appendix.

3

Homosexuality among primates, for example, has been traced back to at least the Oligocene epoch, 24-37 million years ago (based on its distribution among contemporary primates; Vasey 1995:195). Some scientists place its original appearance even earlier in the evolutionary line leading to mammals, at around 200 million years ago (Baker and Bellis 1995:5), and it has probably existed for much longer among other animal groups. Vasey, P. L. (1995) “Homosexual Behavior in Primates: A Review of Evidence and Theory,” International Journal of Primatology 16:173-204; Baker, R., and M. A. Bellis (1995) Human Sperm Competition: Copulation, Masturbation, and Infidelity (London: Chapman and Hall).

4

See note 29, as well as part 2 and the appendix, for more detailed tabulations (including discussion of species not included in this tally).

5

For further discussion of sexual orientation in animals, as well as comparisons between animal and human homosexuality, see chapter 2. Following Vasey (“Homosexual Behavior in Primates,” p. 175), the term homosexual is used to designate primarily the form of behaviors without necessarily implying anything about their “function or context or the actors’ ages and motivation.” For further consideration of the terminology used to describe same-sex activity in animals, including discussion of alternative definitions of the term homosexual(ity) as it is applied to animals (and some of the controversies that have surrounded its use in the zoological literature), see chapter 3. For more on the “functions” and contexts of homosexual behavior, see chapters 4-5.

6

Guianan Cock-of-the-Rock (Endler and Thery 1996); Anna’s Hummingbird (Hamilton 1965); Buff-breasted Sandpiper (Myers 1989).

7

For a general survey of play-fighting, see Aldis, O. (1975) Play Fighting. (New York: Academic Press).

8

Spinner Dolphin (Norris et al. 1994:250).

9