without undergoing the full physical transitioning of a transsexual). For more discussion and exemplification see Feinberg, L. (1996) Transgender Warriors: Making History from Joan of Arc to RuPaul (Boston: Beacon Press).
47
Foltz, D. W, H. Ochman, J. S. Jones, S. M. Evangelisti, and R. K. Selander (1982) “Genetic Population Structure and Breeding Systems in Arionid Slugs (Mollusca: Pulmonata),” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 17:225-41.
48
Of course, the term transvestism, when applied to people, refers primarily the wearing clothing of the opposite sex (and all of the attendant social and cultural repercussions). In its zoological usage, however, it simply refers to physical or behavioral attributes that are typical of the opposite sex in that species. For scientific use of this term, see the references in the notes for this section, as well as Weinrich, J. D. (1980) “Homosexual Behavior in Animals: (A New Review of Observations from the Wild, and Their Relationship to Human Sexuality,” in R. Forleo and W. Pasini, eds., Medical Sexology: The Third International Congress, pp. 288-95. (Littleton, Mass.: PSG Publishing).
49
Owen, D. F. (1988) “Mimicry and Transvestism in Papilio phorcas (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae),” Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa 51:294-96; Weldon, P. J., and G. M. Burghardt (1984) “Deception Divergence and Sexual Selection,” Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 65:89-102.
50
Rohwer, S., S. D. Fretwell, and D. M. Niles (1980) “Delayed Maturation in Passerine Plumages and the Deceptive Acquistion of Resources,” American Naturalist 115:400-437.
51
Estes, R. D. (1991) “The Significance of Horns and Other Male Secondary Sexual Characters in Female Bovids,” Applied Animal Behavior Science 29:403-51; Guthrie, R. D., and R. G. Petocz (1970) “Weapon Au-tomimicry Among Mammals,” American Naturalist 104:585-88.
52
Kirwan, G. M. (1996) “Rostratulidae (Painted-Snipes),” p. 297, in J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal, eds., Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3, Hoatzin to Auks, pp. 292-301 (Barcelona: Lynx Edicions). Examples such as these are often termed sex-role reversal by biologists.
53
See the discussion of homosexual gender roles and interpretations of homosexuality as “pseudoheterosexuality” in chapter 4.
54
Bighorn Sheep (Berger 1985). See also chapter 2 for further discussion of human and animal comparisons.
55
Policansky, D. (1982) “Sex Change in Plants and Animals,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 13:471—95; Forsyth, A. (1986) A Natural History of Sex: The Ecology and Evolution of Mating Behavior, chapter 13. (New York: Scribner’s).
56
For surveys of transsexuality in fishes, see Potts, G. W., and R. J. Wootton, eds., (1984) Fish Reproduction: Strategies and Tactics (London: Academic Press); Warner, R. R. (1978) “The Evolution of Hermaphroditism and Unisexuality in Aquatic and Terrestrial Vertebrates,” in E. S. Reese and F. J. Lighter, eds., Contrasts in Behavior: Adaptations in the Aquatic and Terrestrial Environments, pp. 77- 101 (New York: Wiley); Warner, R. R. (1975) “The Adaptive Significance of Sequential Hermaphroditism in Animals,” American Naturalist 109:61-82; Warner, R. R. (1984) “Mating Behavior and Hermaphroditism in Coral Reef Fishes,” American Scientist 72:128—36; Policansky, “Sex Change”; Armstrong, C. N. (1964) Intersexuality in Vertebrates Including Man (London: Academic); Smith, C. L. (1975) “The Evolution of Hermaphroditism in Fishes,” in R. Reinboth, ed., Intersexuality in the Animal Kingdom, pp. 295-310 (New York: Springer-Verlag); Smith, C. L. (1967) “Contribution to a Theory of Hermaphroditism,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 17:76-90.
57
Robertson, D. R., and R. R. Warner (1978) “Sexual Patterns in the Labroid Fishes of the Western Caribbean, II: The Parrotfishes (Scaridae),” Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 255:1—26; Warner, R.R., and I. F. Downs (1977) “Comparative Life Histories: Growth versus Reproduction in Normal Males and Sex-changing Hermaphrodites in the Striped Parrotfish, Scarus croicensis,” Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Coral Reefs 1(Biology):275-82; Thresher, R. E. (1984) Reproduction in Reef Fishes (Neptune City, N.J.: T.F.H. Publications).
58
Paketi: Jones, G. P. (1980) “Growth and Reproduction in the Protogynous Hermaphrodite Pseudolabrus celidotus (Pisces: Labridae) in New Zealand,” Copeia 1980:660-75; Ayling, T. (1982) Sea Fishes of New Zealand, p. 255 (Auckland: Collins). Humbug damselfish: Coates, D. (1982) “Some Observations on the Sexuality of Humbug Damselfish, Dascyllus aruanus (Pisces, Pomacentridae) in the Field,” Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 59:7-18. Red Sea anemonefish: Fricke, H. W. (1979) “Mating System, Resource Defence, and Sex Change in the Anemonefish Amphiprion akallopisos,” Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 50:313-26. Lantern bass and others: Petersen, C. W., and E. A. Fischer (1986) “Mating System of the Hermaphroditic Coral-reef Fish, Serranus baldwini,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 19:171—78; Nakashima, Y, K. Karino, T. Kuwamura, and Y. Sakai (1997) “A Protogynous Wrasse May Have a Functionally Simultaneous Hermaphrodite Phase,” in M. Taborsky and B. Taborsky, eds., Contributions to the XXV International Ethological Conference, p. 214, Advances in Ethology no. 32 (Berlin: Blackwell Wissenschafrs-Verlag). Coral goby: Kuwamura, T., Y. Nakshima, and Y. Yogo (1994) “Sex Change in Either Direction by Growth-Rate Advantage in the Monogamous Coral Goby, Paragobiodon echinocephalus,” Behavioral Ecology 5:434-38; Nakashima, Y., T. Kuwamura, and Y. Yogo (1995) “Why Be a Both-ways Sex Changer?” Ethology 101:301- 7.
Chapter 2. Humanistic Animals, Animalistic Humans
1
Names for individual animals in each species, and the activities they engaged in, are from the following sources: Gorillas (Yamagiwa 1987a, Stewart 1977); Bottlenose Dolphins (Tavolga 1966); West Indian Manatees (Hartman 1971); Siamangs (Fox 1977); Bonobos (Idani 1991); Crested Black Macaques (Poirier 1964); Rhesus Macaques (Reinhardt et al. 1986); Japanese Macaques (Sugiyama 1960); Crab-eating Macaques (Hamilton 1914); Asiatic Mouflons (Pfeffer 1967); Grizzly Bears (Craighead 1979); Long-eared Hedgehogs (Poduschka 1981); Greylag Geese (Lorenz 1991); White-handed Gibbons (Edwards and Todd 1991); Orangutans (Rijksen 1978).
2
For cross-cultural and other surveys of the wide variety of human homosexualities, see Ford, C. S., and F. A. Beach (1951) Patterns of Sexual Behavior (New York: Harper and Row); Bell, A. P., and M. S. Weinberg (1978) Homosexualities: A Study of Diversity Among Men and Women (New York: Simon and Schuster); Blackwood, E., ed., (1986) The Many Faces of Homosexuality: Anthropological Approaches to Homosexual Behavior (New York: Harrington Park Press); Greenberg, D. F. (1988) The Construction of Homosexuality (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press); Murray, S.O.,ed., (1992) Oceanic Homosexualitites (New York: Garland); Plummer, K., ed., (1992) Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experience (London: Routledge); Murray, S. O. (1995) Latin American Homosexualities (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press); Murray, S., and W. Roscoe (1997)
