37
Manakadan, R. (1991) “A Flock of One-Legged Greenshanks
38
Ring-billed Gull (Kovacs and Ryder 1983; Fetterolf et al. 1984); Japanese Macaque (Wolfe 1986:272; Gouzoules and Goy 1983:41); Greylag Goose (Huber and Martys 1993:161-62); Mallard Duck (Schutz 1965). Heg and van Treuren (1998:689) also found that bisexual trios of Oystercatchers are just as common on optimal as suboptimal territories.
39
Weinrich,
40
Bonobo (de Waal 1997:107); Bottlenose Dolphin (Wells et al. 1987:294); Orang-utan (Galdikas 1981:285, 297, 1995:172; Kaplan and Rogers 1994:82).
41
Undoubtedly other species will be discovered that also exhibit this full range of characteristics. Many of these features are already known to characterize Stumptail Macaque sexuality, for example, including hidden estrous cycles (cf. de Waal 1989:150), anal and oral intercourse, and pairlike “sexual friendships” or “preferred partners” (and much remains to be learned about this species in the wild). Similarly, Japanese Macaques have pair-bonded consortships, face-to-face sexual encounters, and “social class” differences in sexual/pairing activity (cf. Corradino 1990:360), while Gorillas have face-to-face copulation, bonding or “preferred partners,” hidden estrous cycles (cf. Wolfe 1991:125), and oral sexual activities. Certain of these characteristics also occur individually in animal groups other than primates and cetaceans: a face-to-face mating position, for instance, is occasionally used by snow leopards, while Ruffs have a highly structured “class” system among males involving (among other features) differing sexual behaviors (Freeman, H. [1983] “Behavior in Adult Pairs of Captive Snow Leopards [
42
Weinrich,
43
Likewise, the durations of homosexual as opposed to heterosexual acts (such as mounting) are usually comparable. In some species, however, homosexual interactions generally last longer (e.g., Gorillas, White-handed Gibbons, American Bison, West Indian Manatees), while in others heterosexual encounters typically last longer (e.g., Harbor Seals, Red Foxes, Humboldt Penguins, Long-tailed Hermit Hummingbirds). In many species homosexual interactions do exhibit greater variability or flexibility in terms of the role differentiation of partners (see chapter 4 for further discussion).
44
Bonobo (Kitamura 1989:53—57, 61; Kano 1992:187); Gorilla (Fischer and Nadler 1978:660—61; Yamagiwa 1987a:12—14, 1987b:37; Harcourt and Stewart 1978:611—12); Hanuman Langur (Weber and Vogel 1970:76; Srivastava et al. 1991:496-97).
45
Japanese Macaque (Hanby and Brown 1974:164; Hanby 1974:838-40).
46
Flamingo (C. E. King, personal communication).
47
The head-to-tail position does occur in interspecies homosexual interactions with Tucuxi Dolphins. Same- species versus cross-species differences in mounting position (independent of the sex of the partner) are also found in other cetaceans. Among Bottlenose Dolphins, for example, a belly-to-belly mating position is typical of same- species contacts, both homosexual and heterosexual (cf. McBride and Hebb 1948:115, among others), while a sideways, dorsoventral position occurs in interspecies encounters with Atlantic Spotted Dolphins of both sexes (Herzing and Johnson 1997:92, 96).
48
Anderson, S. (1993) “Stitchbirds Copulate Front to Front,”
49
Vasey, “Homosexual Behavior in Primates,” p. 195.
50
For further details see the primate profiles in part 2, as well as the discussion of nonreproductive heterosexualities in chapter 5.
51
For discussion of cultural traditions in animals, including references to many specific cases, see Bonner, J. T. (1980)
52
Japanese Macaque (Itani 1959; Gouzoules and Goy 1983:47; Eaton 1978; Wolfe 1984:152); Stumptail Macaque (Chevalier-Skolnikoff 1976:512; Bertrand 1969:193-94); Savanna Baboon (Ransom 1981:139). In Hanuman Langurs, mounting between females may also have a cultural component, since it exhibits wide variability not only between individuals but also between geographic areas. It occurs frequently in some regions (e.g., Jodhpur, India), less frequently in others (e.g., Abu and Sariska in India), rarely in others (e.g., Sri Lanka), and not at all in still others (e.g., some parts of Nepal) (Srivastava et al.1991:504—5 [table V]). Heterosexual courtship patterns in Common Chimpanzees also exhibit cultural variations (cf. Nishida 1997:394, among others).
53
Bonobo (Savage-Rumbaugh et al. 1977; Savage-Rumbaugh and Wilkerson 1978; Savage and Bakeman 1978; Roth 1995; S. Savage-Rumbaugh, personal communication). Drawings, verbal descriptions, and “glosses” of the hand signals and their meanings in the accompanying illustration are based on these sources. For alternate descriptions of some of these gestures, as well as gestures used in nonsexual situations, see de Waal 1988:214- 21.