Dagg, A. I. (1984) “Homosexual Behavior and Female-Male Mounting in Mammals—a First Survey,” Mammal Review 14:155-85; Vasey, “Homosexual Behavior in Primates”; Vasey 1996, 1998 (Japanese Macaque); Vasey, P. L. (in press) “Homosexual Behavior in Male Birds,” “Homosexual Behavior in Male Primates,” in W. R. Dynes, ed., Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, 2nd ed., vol. 1: Male Homosexuality (New York: Garland Press). See also the recent bibliography: Williams, J. B. (1992) Homosexuality in Nonhuman Primates: A Bibliography: 1940—1992 (Seattle: Primate Information Center). For descriptions of animal homosexuality that are relatively value neutral (i.e., that do not view homosexual behavior as inherently problematic), or for accounts that are not overly concerned with finding a “cause” or “explanation” for the behavior, see, for example, Yeager 1990a (Proboscis Monkey); Marlow 1975 (Australian, New Zealand Sea Lions); Sowls 1974, 1984 (Collared Peccary); Schaller 1967 (Blackbuck, Barasingha); Braithwaite 1981 (Black Swan); King 1994 (Flamingo); Riddiford 1995 (Common Gull); Smith 1988 (Lyrebird); Neelakantan 1962 (Black-rumped Flameback); and Rogers and McCulloch 1981, Rowley 1990 (Galah). For descriptions of homosexual activity that recognize it as a routine or “normal” behavioral phenomenon, see Porton and White 1996 (Gorilla); Akers and Conaway 1979 (Rhesus Macaque); Eaton 1978, Fedigan 1982, Wolfe 1984, 1986, Chapais and Mignault 1991, Vasey 1996 (Japanese Macaque); Chevalier-Skolnikoff 1976 (Stumptail Macaque); Wells et al. 1987, Wells 1991, Wells et al. 1998 (Bottlenose Dolphin); Rose 1992 (Killer Whale); Hartman 1971, 1979 (West Indian Manatee); Lott 1983 (American Bison); and Coe 1967 (Giraffe). In addition, a number of zoologists in their personal communications with me have been refreshingly free of the negative judgments or interpretations that unfortunately characterize most of the field; among them, B. J. Ens (Oystercatchers), C. B. Frith (Birds of Paradise), M. Fujioka (Egrets), M. Fukuda (Great Cormorants), D. Heg (Oystercatchers), D. L. Herzing (Dolphins), C. E. King (Flamingos), W. D. Koenig (Acorn Woodpeckers), D. F. Lott (American Bison), M. Martys (Greylag Geese), M. G. L. Mills (Spotted Hyenas), C. Reed (Crested Black Macaques), S. Savage-Rumbaugh (Bonobos), C. J. Scholten (Humboldt Penguins), L. H. Smith (Superb Lyrebirds), Y. Sugiyama (primates), and P. L. Vasey (Japanese Macaques, other species).
13
While the word homophobia means, literally, an irrational fear of homosexuality, the term is also applied to instances of disgust, revulsion, hatred, or open hostility, as well as more subtle prejudicial feelings of discomfort, distaste, or dislike toward homosexuality or homosexual individuals (not necessarily accompanied by fear). For more discussion and further references on the nature and consequences of homophobia, see Blumenfeld, W. J., ed. (1992) Homophobia: How We All Pay the Price (Boston: Beacon Press).
14
Ruff (Selous 1906—7:420, 423); American Bison (McHugh 1958:25); Waterbuck (Spinage 1982:118).
15
The appellations abnormal, aberrant, unnatural, or perverted, for example, have been applied by scientists to homosexual behavior or transgender in at least 30 different species of mammals and birds (often in multiple sources for each species), and as recently as the mid-1980s in some published accounts (Kittiwake [Coulson and Thomas 1985:20]; Bighorn Sheep [Berger 1985]). Even more recently (Finley et al. 1997:914—15, 917), same-sex courtship and sexual activity in Fruit Flies (as well as refusal of heterosexual advances) have been characterized as “abnormal,” “aberrant,” and a “defect,” and similar terms have also been used by some zoologists in their personal communications with me. Somewhat less derogatory designations such as odd (including odd couples), peculiar, irregular, or bizarre have been used to describe homosexuality or transgender in at least 15 other species of mammals and birds. Many other examples can of course be found in descriptions of reptiles, amphibians, fishes, insects, and other creatures. Heterosexual behaviors or individuals are characterized as “normal” in opposition to homosexual behaviors or individuals in the following published scientific sources, among others: Common Chimpanzee (Adang et al. 1987:242); Gorilla (Harcourt 1988:59); Kob (Buechner and Schloeth 1965:2219); Canada Goose (Collias and Jahn 1959:484); Black-winged Stilt (Kitagawa 1988a:64); Black-headed Gull (van Rhijn and Groothuis 1985:161); Lovebirds (Dilger 1960:667); Hooded Warbler (Niven 1994:192); Ostrich (Sauer 1972:729).
16
Gadeau de Kerville (1896); Grollet and L. Lepinay (1908) “L’inversion sexuelle chez les animaux” (Sexual Inversion in Animals), Revue de l’hypnotisme 23:34-37; Savanna Baboon (Marais 1922/1969); Bengalese Finch (Masatomi 1957); Ostrich (Sauer 1972); Long-eared Hedgehog (Poduschka 1981); Whiptail Lizard (Crews and Young 1991).
17
Mazarine Blue (Tennent 1987:81-82).
18
Domestic Cattle (Klemm et al. 1983:187); Elephants (Rosse 1892:799); Lion (Cooper 1942:26-28); Buff- breasted Sandpiper (Myers 1989); Domestic Turkey (Hale 1955:1059); Spinner Dolphin (Wells 1984:470); Killer Whale (Rose 1992:112); Caribou (Bergerud 1974:420); Adelie Penguin (Davis et al. 1998:137); Black-billed Magpie (Baeyens 1979:39-40); Guianan Cock-of the-Rock (Trail 1985a:238-39); Sage Grouse (Scott 1942:494). Other terms, while not necessarily derogatory, reflect scientists’ particular interpretations of such behavior as substitute or counterproductive activities: same-sex mounting in Gorillas is called “vicarious” sexual activity (Fossey 1983:74, 188—89), and homosexual mounting in African Buffalo is categorized as “barren sexual behavior” (Mloszewski 1983:186). See also the subsequent section “Mock Courtships and Sham Matings” for discussion of the widespread use of terms such as false or mock sexual behavior to characterize homosexual activity, and chapters 4 and 5 for other interpretations of homosexuality.
19
Long-eared Hedgehog (Poduschka 1981:84, 87); Eastern Gray Kangaroo (Grant 1974:74); Black-crowned Night Heron (Noble et al. 1938:29); King Penguin (Gillespie 1932:95, 98); Gorilla (Harcourt 1988:59); Lorikeets (Low 1977:24); Red Fox (Macdonald 1987:101); Greenshank (Nethersole-Thompson and Nethersole-Thompson 1979:112—13; Nethersole-Thompson 1951:109).
20
This is not to say, of course, that homosexual “advances” are never unwanted. Various forms of nonconsensual courtship or sexual approaches between animals of the same sex have been reported in about a quarter of the mammal and bird species exhibiting homosexuality. However, in many cases they co-occur with “consensual” homosexual interactions in the same species, from which they are clearly distinguished by behavioral indications of unwillingness on the part of one partner. As in nonconsensual heterosexual interactions (which are reported in more than a third of the species in which homosexual behavior has been documented and in general are equally, if not more, prevalent in animals—see chapter 5), there is actually a continuum of disinterest and “refusal” behavior. An animal may signal its unwillingness by not permitting any sexual approaches or contact at all, by permitting sexual contact but not facilitating the interaction, or by actively interrupting contact (either by trying to get away or by attacking the other animal). Assertions by scientists of “unwanted” homosexual attentions are usually anthropomorphic projections made regardless of whether such behavioral evidence is present (or what degree of nonconsensuality is involved).
21
Mountain Sheep (Geist 1975:100); Rhesus Macaque (Carpenter 1942:137, 151-52); Laughing Gull (Noble and Wurm 1943:205—6); Cattle Egret (Fujioka and Yamagishi 1981:139); Sage Grouse (Gibson and Bradbury 1986:396); Orang-utan (Rijksen 1978:264-65); Kob (Buechner and Schloeth 1965:211-12, 217, 219); Ostrich (Sauer 1972:729, 733); Guianan Cock-of-the-Rock (Trail and Koutnik 1986:210-11, 215); Mallard Duck (Schutz 1965:458); Rhesus Macaque (Kempf 1917:136). One zoologist also reveals something of his own misconceptions concerning both homosexual and heterosexual intercourse when he expresses surprise that a female Bonobo “on the bottom” during a lesbian interaction does not appear to mind—in fact, visibly enjoys—being in that position: “If we were on the bottom being held down, we would probably feel submissive and inferior, but female pygmy chimpanzees seem not to take it that way … the female on the bottom … looks proud and affectionate” (Kano 1992:193).
22
Greylag Goose (Huber and Martys 1993:161); see Lorenz (1991:241—42) on gander pairs being more closely bonded than heterosexual pairs.
