(Morris, D. [1956] “The Function and Causation of Courtship Ceremonies,” in M. Autuori and Fondation Singer- Polignac, L‘instinct dans le comportement des animaux et de l’homme [Paris: Masson et Cie.])
36
Savanna (Chacma) Baboon (Marais 1922/1969:215).
37
Ruff (van Rhijn 1991:21); Bonnet Macaque (Nolte 1955:179).
38
Walrus (Miller and Boness 1983:305); African Elephant (Shelton 1965:163-64); Gorilla (Maple, T. [1977] “Unusual Sexual Behavior of Nonhuman Primates,” in J. Money and H. Musaph, eds., Handbook of Sexology, pp. 1169-70 [Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica]); Sage Grouse (Scott 1942:495); Hanuman Langur (Mohnot 1984:349); Common Chimpanzee (Kortlandt 1962:132); Musk-ox (Reinhardt 1985:297-98); Mallard Duck (Lebret 1961:111—12); Blue-bellied Roller (Moynihan 1990:17); Lion (Cooper 1942:26-28); Orang-utan (Rijksen 1978:257); Savanna Baboon (Noe 1992:295, 311); Mule Deer (Halford et al. 1987:107); Hammerhead (Brown 1982:171; Campbell 1983:11); Bonobo (Thompson-Handler et al. 1984:358; de Waal 1987:319, 1997:102); Japanese Macaque (Green 1975:14); Rhesus Macaque (Reinhardt et al. 1986:56); Red Fox (Macdonald 1980:137); Squirrels (Ferron 1980; Horwich 1972; Reilly 1972). A few of these terms are also applied to nonreproductive heterosexual activities, in which case the attribution of “falseness” refers to the fact that the behavior does not result in procreation rather than to a same-sex context per se. See chapter 5 for further discussion of the parallel treatment of nonreproductive heterosexual behaviors as “abnormal” in the history of zoology.
39
The categorization of homosexual activity as less than “genuine” sexual activity is an important issue, and the various ways that same-sex activity is desexualized will be examined in greater detail in the next section.
40
Bonobo (Kano 1992); Common Chimpanzee (de Waal 1982); Snow Goose (Diamond 1989); Lesser Flamingo (Alraun and Hewston 1997); Oystercatcher (Heg and van Treuren 1998); Black-billed Magpie (Baeyens 1979); Black Stilt (Reed 1993); Fruit Flies (Cook 1975); Long-legged Fly sp. (Dyte 1989).
41
Gowaty, P. A. (1982) “Sexual Terms in Sociobiology: Emotionally Evocative and Paradoxically, Jargon,” Animal Behavior 30:630—31. The title of the article in question (Abele and Gilchrist 1977, on Acanthocephalan Worms) also contained the word rape, so it is possible that scientists were “snickering” at this as well. Gowaty suggests replacing, along with unisexual for homosexual, all “loaded” terminology with more “neutral” words, e.g., forced copulation for rape, kleptogamy for cuckoldry, one-male social unit for harem. Many of her arguments for such alternate terminology are valid, e.g., that the “loaded” terms are often scientifically inaccurate. Notably, however, her principal argument against the word homosexual is not that it is inaccurate, but that use of this term is “sensationalistic” and triggers the prejudices of other scientists, thereby preventing them from seeing past the word to what it describes. It should also be pointed out that many formerly controversial terms for heterosexual behaviors are now acceptable in scientific circles. The word divorce, for example, was first greeted with an “uproar” when used to describe the break-up of pair-bonds in birds, and numerous scientists suggested replacing it with more “neutral” words; yet the term is now widely used in the ornithological literature (Milius, S. [1998] “When Birds Divorce: Who Splits, Who Benefits, and Who Gets the Nest,” p. 153, Science News 153:153-55).
42
Giraffe (Coe 1967:320; Leuthold, W. [1977] African Ungulates: A Comparative Review of Their Ethology and Behavioral Ecology, p. 130 [Berlin: Springer-Verlag]).
43
Connor, J. (1997) “Courtship Testing,” Living Bird 16(3)31-32; Depraz, V, G. Leboucher, L. Nagle, and M. Kreutzer (1997) “‘Sexy’ Songs of Male Canaries: Are They Necessary for Female Nest- Building?” in M. Taborsky and B. Taborsky, eds., Contributions to the XXV International Ethological Conference, p. 122, Advances in Ethology no. 32 (Berlin: Blackwell Wissenschafrs-Verlag); Emlen, S. T., and N. J. Demong (1996) “All in the Family,” Living Bird 15(3):30-34; Savanna Baboon (Smuts 1985:223, 1987:39, 43); Tasmanian Native Hen (Goldizen et al. 1998); Mirande, C. M., and G. Archibald (1990) “Sexual Maturity and Pair Formation in Captive Cranes at the International Crane Foundation,” in AAZPA Annual Conference Proceedings, pp. 216-25 (Wheeling, W.Va.: American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums); Bonobo (de Waal 1997:117); Eisner, T., M.A. Goetz, D. E. Hill, S. R. Smedley and J. Meinwald (1997) “Firefiy ‘Femmes Fatales’ Acquire Defensive Steroids (Lucibufagins) from Their Firefly Prey,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 94:9723-28; Domestic Goat (Shank 1972:500). See also the discussion of red-cockaded woodpecker “family values” in chapter 2.
44
Greylag Goose (Lorenz 1991:241-43) (see also Lorenz’s own assertion, in this same passage, that such male pairs are not simply platonic “friendships” between males but are equivalent to male-female mated pairs). Analogously, Kortlandt (1949) (Great Cormorant) labels same-sex pairs “pseudohomosexual” rather than “homosexual” if their members later form heterosexual bonds, once again equating “true” homosexuality with lifetime, exclusive same-sex pairing. See chapter 2 for more on the dubious notion of “true” homosexuality and its relation to more sophisticated characterizations of sexual orientation. Lorenz’s unwillingness to apply the term homosexual to gander pairs and thereby invite human-animal comparisons (or imply full heterosexual-homosexual equivalence) is especially problematic in light of his activities during the Third Reich. As a member of the Nazi party in Austria and an official lecturer for its Office of Race Policy, Lorenz did not hesitate to draw analogies between animals and people to support and develop the doctrines of “biological degeneracy,” “racial purity,” and the “elimination” of “inferior” or “asocial” elements (Deichmann, U. [1996] Biologists under Hitler, especially “Konrad Lorenz, Ethology, and National Socialist Racial Doctrine,” pp. 179-205. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press). Among his most blatant assertions in this regard are statements (in 1943) that physical and moral “decay” in people is “identical” to the effects of domestication on animals and (in 1940) that the “defective type” among humans is like “the domesticated animal that can be bred in the dirtiest stable and with any sexual partner” (ibid., pp. 186, 188; cf. Lorenz’s [1935/1970:203] surmise that same-sex pairing in Jackdaws only occurs in captive animals and is not a feature of “natural” populations). He also asserted (in 1941) that “Precisely in the large field of instinctive behavior, humans and animals can be directly compared … . We confidently venture to predict that these studies will be fruitful for both theoretical as well as practical concerns of race policy” (ibid., p. 186). The subject of how the antihomosexual climate of Nazi Germany and the Nazi sympathies of some biologists helped shape the scientific discourse on animal homosexuality deserves further investigation. Many zoological studies of this phenomenon, after all, were written in Germany and Austria during this period or were heavily influenced by work that had its genesis during this time. Moreover, one of the earliest scientific surveys of animal homosexuality (Karsh, “Paderastie und Tribadie bei den Tieren” [1990]), appeared in the periodical Jahrbuch fur sexuelle Zwischenstufen (Yearbook for Sexual Intermediate Types), published by the noted Jewish homosexual Magnus Hirschfield, whose mammoth archives and library of sexology were later destroyed by the Nazis.
45
Western Gull (Hayward and Fry 1993). See also Diamond and Burns, who suggest that same-sex pairing in Gulls should be referred to as “joint brooding” or “coparenting” rather than as homosexuality, thereby emphasizing its supposed reproductive functions (Diamond, M., and J. A. Burns [1995] “Human-Nonhuman Comparisons in Sex: Valid and Invalid,” paper presented at the 24th International Ethological Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii). For arguments that same-sex pairing is not primarily a reproductive behavior, see chapters 4 and 5.
46
For examples of scientists who use the term homosexual (or lesbian or gay) even when no overt sexual activity is involved (i.e., to refer to related behaviors such as courtship, pairing, or parenting), see Sauer 1972 (Ostrich), Nethersole-
