Pierotti and Murphy 1987 (Western Gull/Kittiwake); Redondo, T., E S. Tortosa, and L. A. de Reyna (1995) “Nest Switching and Alloparental Care in Colonial White Storks,” Animal Behavior 49:1097—110; Tella, J. L., M. G. Forero, J. A. Donazar, J. J. Negro, and F. Hiraldo (1997) “Non-Adaptive Adoptions of Nestlings in the Colonial Lesser Kestrel: Proximate Causes and Fitness Consequences,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 40:253-60. For egg transfer with adoption, see Black-billed Magpie, Caspian Tern, Cliff Swallow; for egg transfer through swallowing and regurgitation, see Vermeer, K. (1967) “Foreign Eggs in Nests of California Gulls,” Wilson Bulletin 79:341; for a case of egg transfer that does not necessarily involve adoption, see Truslow, F. K. (1967) “Egg-Carrying by the Pileated Woodpecker,” Living Bird 6:227-36.
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For further examples of animals caring for offspring other than their own, see the index and the following articles: Riedman, M. L. (1982) “The Evolution of Alloparental Care and Adoption in Mammals and Birds,” Quarterly Review of Biology 57:405-35; Lank, D. B., M. A. Bousfield, F. Cooke, and R. F. Rockwell (1991) “Why Do Snow Geese Adopt Eggs?” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 2:181-87; Andersson, M. (1984) “Brood Parasitism Within Species,” in C. J. Barnard, ed., Producers and Scroungers: Strategies of Exploitation and Parasitism, pp. 195-228 (London: Croom Helm); Yom-Tov, Y. (1980) “Intraspecific Nest Parasitism in Birds,” Biological Reviews 55:93-108; Quiatt, D. (1979) “Aunts and Mothers: Adaptive Implications of Allo-maternal Behavior of Nonhuman Primates,” American Anthropologist 81:310-19; Packer, C., S. Lewis, and A. Pusey (1992) “A Comparative Analysis of Non-Offspring Nursing,” Animal Behavior 43:265-81; Solomon and French, Cooperative Breeding in Mammals, especially pp. 335-63.
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For surveys of various types of mating systems, see Rowland, R. (1966) Comparative Biology of Reproduction in Mammals (Orlando: Academic Press); Slater, P. J. B., and T. R. Halliday, eds. (1994) Behavior and Evolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Clutton-Brock, T. G. (1989) “Mammalian Mating Systems,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 235:339-72.
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See, for example, Palombit (1994a,b, 1996), especially with regard to reevaluating the nature and diversity of pair-bonding, fidelity, and monogamy in Gibbons. It should also be pointed out that because the occurrence of infidelity between pair-bonded partners has only been appreciated relatively recently, the term monogamy is often used in the zoological literature simply as a synonym for pair-bonding.
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Monogamy (absolute, or near absolute): Gyllensten, U. B., S. Jakobsson, and H. Temrin (1990) “No Evidence for Illegitimate Young in Monogamous and Polygynous Warblers,” Nature 343:168—70; Holthuijzen, A. M. A. (1992) “Frequency and Timing of Copulations in the Prairie Falcon,” Wilson Bulletin 104:333-38; Decker, M. D., P. G. Parker, D. J. Minchella, and K. N. Rabenold (1993) “Monogamy in Black Vultures: Genetic Evidence from DNA Fingerprinting,” Behavioral Ecology 4:29-35; Vincent, A. C. J., and L. M. Sadler (1995) “Faithful Pair Bonds in Wild Seahorses, Hippocampus whitei,” Animal Behavior 50:1557—69; Mauck, R. A., T. A. Waite, and P. G. Parker (1995) “Monogamy in Leach’s Storm-Petrel: DNA-Fingerprinting Evidence,” Auk 112:473— 82; Haydock, J., P. G. Parker, and K. N. Rabenold (1996) “Extra-Pair Paternity Uncommon in the Cooperatively Breeding Bicolored Wren,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 38:1—16; Fleischer, R. C., C. L. Tarr, E. S. Morton, A. Sangmeister, and K. C. Derrickson (1997) “Mating System of the Dusky Antbird, a Tropical Passerine, as Assessed by DNA Fingerprinting,” Condor 99:512—14; Piper, W. H., D. C. Evers, M.W. Meyer, K. B. Tischler, J. D. Kaplan, and R. C. Fleischer (1997) “Genetic Monogamy in the Common Loon (Gavia immer ),” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 41:25-31; Kleiman, D. G. (1977) “Monogamy in Mammals,” Quarterly Review of Biology 52:39—69; Foltz, D.W (1981) “Genetic Evidence for Long-Term Monogamy in a Small Rodent, Peromyscus polionotus,” American Naturalist 117:665-75; Ribble, D. O. (1991) “The Monogamous Mating System of Peromyscus californicus As Revealed by DNA Fingerprinting,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 29:161—66; Brotherton, P. N. M., J. M. Pemberton, P. E. Komers, and G. Malarky (1997) “Genetic and Behavioral Evidence of Monogamy in a Mammal, Kirk’s Dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii),” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 264:675-81. Infidelity or nonmonogamy: Gladstone, D. E. (1979) “Promiscuity in Monogamous Colonial Birds,” American Naturalist 114:545-57; Gowaty, P. A., and D. W. Mock, eds., (1985) Avian Monogamy (Washington, D.C.: American Ornithologists’ Union); Birkhead, T. R., L. Atkin, and A. P. Moller (1986) “Copulation Behavior of Birds,” Behavior 101:101-38; Westneat, D. E, P.W. Sherman, and M. L. Morton (1990) “The Ecology and Evolution of Extra-pair Copulations in Birds,” Current Ornithology 7:331-69; Black, J. M., ed. (1996) Partnerships in Birds: The Study of Monogamy (Oxford: Oxford University Press); Richardson, P. R. K. (1987) “Aardwolf Mating System: Overt Cuckoldry in an Apparently Monogamous Mammal,” South African Journal of Science 83:405-10; Palombit 1994a,b (Gibbons); Sillero-Zubiri, C, D. Gottelli, and D. W. Macdonald (1996) “Male Philopatry, Extra-Pack Copulations, and Inbreeding Avoidance in Ethiopian Wolves (Canis simensis),” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 38:331 -40.
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As noted earlier, females also avoid STDs by refraining from genital contact during such mountings. For both Razorbills and spotted sandpipers, see Wagner, R. H. (1991) “The Use of Extrapair Copulations for Mate Appraisal by Razorbills, Alca torda” Behavioral Ecology 2:198—203. See also Koala for an example of a species with high rates of STDs in wild populations (Brown et al. 1987; Weigler et al. 1988). For other species in which significant portions of nonmonogamous matings are nonprocreative, see the profiles of Snow Goose, Lesser Scaup Duck, Common Murre, Oystercatcher, Silver Gull, and Swallows.
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In addition to pair-bonding species in which nonmonogamous or alternate parenting arrangements are adopted by some individuals, the opposite situation also occurs. In some species in which the mating arrangement is typically polygamous or in which males do not usually participate in parenting, some individuals deviate from this pattern. Monogamous pair-bonding occurs in some Gray Seals (Amos et al. 1995) and Ruffs (Cramp and Simmons 1983:391), for example, even though most individuals are polygamous in these species, while some male Mallards (Losito and Baldassarre 1996:692) and Lyrebirds (Smith 1988:37— 38) occasionally parent their offspring even though males of these species generally do not contribute to parental duties.
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Based on data from 140 populations of 76 different bird species, the average divorce rate is about 20 percent; only about 11 percent of these populations have no heterosexual divorce at all or rates of less than 1 percent. See appendix 19.1 in Ens, B. J., S. Choudhury, and J. M. Black (1996) “Mate Fidelity and Divorce in Monogamous Birds,” in J. M. Black, ed., Partnerships in Birds: The Study of Monogamy, pp. 344-401 (Oxford: Oxford University Press). For further discussion of divorce, see Choudhury, S. (1995) “Divorce in Birds: A Review of the Hypotheses,” Animal Behavior 50:413-29; Rowley, I. (1983) “Re-Mating in Birds,” in P. Bateson, ed., Mate Choice, pp. 331-60 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
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Oystercatcher (Harris et al. 1987:47, 55); Ocellated Antbird (Willis 1973:35-36); Warthog (Cumming 1975:89—90); White-tailed Deer (Gerlach, D., S. Atwater, and J. Schnell, eds. [1994] Deer, pp. 145, 150 [Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books]); Snow Goose (Prevett and MacInnes 1980:25, 43).
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Siamang (Fox 1977:409, 413—14).
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