Aboriginal peoples hold parallel beliefs about a related bird, the Emu, being all-female or having ambiguous or simultaneous genders (Maddock, K. [1975] “The Emu Anomaly,” pp. 112-13, 118, 121, in L. R. Hiatt, ed., Australian Aboriginal Mythology, pp. 102-22 [Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies]).
31
Gell, A. (1975) Metamorphosis of the Cassowaries: Umeda Society, Language, and Ritual, pp. 180, 182, 184, 225-26, 233-34, 239-40, 250, L.S.E. Monographs on Social Anthropology no. 51 (London: Athlone Press); Gell, A. (1971) “Penis Sheathing and Ritual Status in a West Sepik Village,” pp. 174-75, Man 6:165-81.
32
These individuals are “born with labial folds, reared as girls, and then recognized as being the descendants of Yomnok when distinctive but diminutive male genitalia descend into view on the eve of puberty.” This type of intersexuality (known medically as 5-alpha reductase male pseudo-hermaphroditism) also occurs fairly frequently among the Sambia, where it is recognized as a “third sex” (Poole, “The Procreative and Ritual Constitution of Female, Male, and Other,” pp. 209, 218; Herdt, “Mistaken Sex”). The species of echidna referred to is probably the long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bruijni; for more on indigenous views of echidnas in New Guinea, see Jorgensen, D. (1991) “Echidna and Kuyaam: Classification and Anomalous Animals in Telefolmin,” Journal of the Polynesian Society 100:365-80.
33
Poole, “The Procreative and Ritual Constitution of Female, Male, and Other,” pp. 197, 203-5, 209-10, 216-17; Poole, F. J. P. (1981) “Transforming ‘Natural’ Woman: Female Ritual Leaders and Gender Ideology Among Bimin- Kuskusmin,” pp. 117, 120, 153-60, in S. B. Ortner and H. Whitehead, eds., Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and Sexuality, pp. 116-65 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Poole, F. J. P. (1982) “The Ritual Forging of Identity: Aspects of Person and Self in Bimin-Kuskusmin Male Initiation, pp. 125-31, in G.H. Herdt, ed., Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea, pp. 99-154 (Berkeley: University of California Press).
34
Layard, J. (1942) Stone Men of Malekula, especially pp. 482-94 (London: Chatto and Windus); Allen, M. (1981) “Innovation, Inversion, and Revolution as Political Tactics in West Aoba,” in M. Allen, ed., Vanuatu: Politics, Economics, and Ritual in Island Melanesia, pp. 105-34 (Sydney: Academic Press); Allen, M. R. (1984) “Ritualized Homosexuality, Male Power, and Political Organization in North Vanuatu: A Comparative Analysis,” in Herdt, Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, pp. 83-126; Battaglia, D. (1991) “Punishing the Yams: Leadership and Gender Ambivalence on Sabarl Island,” p. 94, in M. Godelier and M. Strathern, eds., Big Men and Great Men: Personifications of Power in Melanesia, pp. 83-96 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
35
Baker, J. R. (1925) “On Sex-Intergrade Pigs: Their Anatomy, Genetics, and Developmental Physiology,” British Journal of Experimental Biology 2:247-63; Baker, J. R. (1928) “Notes on New Hebridean Customs, with Special Reference to the Intersex Pig,” Man 28:113-18; Baker, J. R. (1928) “A New Type of Mammalian Intersexuality,” British Journal of Experimental Biology 6:56-64; Baker, J. R. (1929) Man and Animals in the New Hebrides, pp. 22, 30-31,115-30 (London: George Routledge & Sons); Jolly, M. (1984) “The Anatomy of Pig Love: Substance, Spirit, and Gender in South Pentecost, Vanuatu,” pp. 84-85, 101, 104-5, Canberra Anthropology 7:78-108; Jolly, M. (1991) “Soaring Hawks and Grounded Persons: The Politics of Rank and Gender in North Vanuatu,” pp. 54, 59, 67, 71, in Godelier and Strathern, Big Men and Great Men, pp. 48-80; Rodman, W. (1996) “The Boars of Bali Ha‘i: Pigs in Paradise,” in J. Bonnemaison, C. Kaufmann, K. Huffman, and D. Tryon, eds., Arts of Vanuatu, pp. 158-67 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press); Huffman, K. W. (1996) “Trading, Cultural Exchange, and Copyright: Important Aspects of Vanuatu Arts” and “Plates and Bowls from Northern and Central Vanuatu,” pp. 183, 192, 228, in Bonnemaison et al., Arts of Vanuatu, pp. 182-94, 226-31.
36
In accordance with many anthropological treatments, North American Inuit cultures are here included with the Siberian culture complex, with which they share many features. They also, of course, show a number of similarities to non-Inuit Native American peoples (as do many Siberian cultures), as well as a large number of unique features, and this arrangement is largely a matter of exposition rather than a reflection of actual or perceived cultural relationships.
37
Balzer, M. M. (1996) “Sacred Genders in Siberia: Shamans, Bear Festivals, and Androgyny,” in Ramet, Gender Reversals and Gender Cultures, pp. 164-82; Bogoras, W. (1904-9) The Chukchee, pp. 448-57, Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 11, Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. 7 (Leiden: E. J. Brill; New York: G. E. Stechert [reprinted in 1975, New York: AMS Press]); Jochelson, W. (1908) The Koryak, pp. 47, 65, 469, 502, 525, 733, Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 10, Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. 6 (Leiden: E. J. Brill; New York: G. E. Stechert [reprinted in 1975, New York: AMS Press]); Murray, S. O. (1992) “Vladimir Bogoraz’s Account of Chukchi Transformed Shamans” and “Vladimir Iokalson’s Reports of Northeastern Siberian Transformed Shamans,” in S. O. Murray, ed., Oceanic Homosexualities, pp. 293-327 (New York: Garland).
38
Serov, S. I. (1988) “Guardians and Spirit-Masters of Siberia,” pp. 241, 247-49, in W. W. Fitzhugh and A. Crowell, eds., Crossroads of Continents: Cultures of Siberia and Alaska, pp. 241-55 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press); Pavlinskaya, L. R. (1994) “The Shaman Costume: Image and Myth,” in G. Seaman and J. S. Day, eds., Ancient Traditions: Shamanism in Central Asia and the Americas, pp. 257-64 (Niwot, Colo.: University Press of Colorado); Zornickaja, M. J. (1978) “Dances of Yakut Shamans,” in V. Dioszegi and M. Hoppal, eds., Shamanism in Siberia, pp. 299-307 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado); Hamayon, R. N. (1992) “Game and Games, Fortune and Dualism in Siberian Shamanism,” in M. Hoppal and J. Pentikainen, eds., Northern Religions and Shamanism, pp. 134-37 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado); Bogoras, The Chukchee, pp. 268-9.
39
Saladin d’Anglure, B. (1986) “Du f?tus au chamane: la construction d‘un ‘troisieme sexe’ inuit” (From Fetus to Shaman: The Construction of an Inuit “Third Sex”), especially pp. 72, 84, 86, Etudes/Inuit/Studies 10:25-113 (selections translated into English and reprinted in A. Mills and R. Slobodin, eds., [1994] Amerindian Rebirth: Reincarnation Belief among North American Indians and Inuit, pp. 82-106 [Toronto: University of Toronto Press]); Saladin d’Anglure, B. (1983) “Ijiqqat: voyage au pays de l‘invisible inuit (Ijiqqat: Travel to the Land of the Inuit Invisible), pp. 72, 81, Etudes/Inuit/Studies 7:67-83; Saladin d’Anglure, B. (1990) “Frere-lune (Taqqiq), s?ur- soleil (Siqiniq), et l‘intelligence du monde (Sila): Cosmologie inuit, cosmographie arctique, et espace-temps chamanique” (Brother-Moon [Taqqiq], Sister-Sun [Siqiniq], and the Intelligence of the World [Sila]: Inuit Cosmology, Arctic Cosmography, and Shamanistic Space-Time), pp. 96-98, Etudes/Inuit/Studies 14:75-139; Boas, F. (1901-7) “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” p. 509, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 15:1-570.
40
Saladin d’Anglure, B. (1990) “Nanook, Super-Male: The Polar Bear in the Imaginary Space and Social Time of the Inuit of the Canadian Arctic,” especially pp. 190, 193, in R. Wills, ed., Signifying Animals: Human Meaning in the Natural World, pp. 178-95 (London: Unwin Hyman).
41
Balzer, “Sacred Genders in Siberia,” pp. 169-74.
42
Fienup-Riordan, A. (1994) Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup‘ik Eskimo Oral Tradition, pp. 114, 139, 274-79, 293, 297-98, 307-12, 320, 345-50 (Norman: University of Oklahoma
