Press); Kaplan, S. A. (1984) “Note,” in E. S. Burch Jr., ed., The Central Yup’ik Eskimos, supplementary issue of Etudes/Inuit/Studies 8:2; Morrow, P. (1984) “It Is Time for Drumming: A Summary of Recent Research on Yup‘ik Ceremonialism,” pp. 119, 138, in E. S. Burch Jr., ed., The Central Yup’ik Eskimos, supplementary issue of Etudes/Inuit/Studies 8:113-40; Fienup-Riordan, A. (1996) The Living Tradition of Yup‘ik Masks: Agayuliyararput (Our Way of Making Prayer), pp. 39, 63, 87-88, 92, 98, 100, 176 (Seattle: University of Washington Press); Chaussonnet, V. (1988) “Needles and Animals: Women’s Magic,” p. 216, in Fitzhugh and Crowell, Crossroads of Continents, pp. 209-26. Among the Cumberland Sound Inuit of eastern Canada, the spirit-guardian and mother of sea mammals, Sedna, has an attendant named Qailertetang who is also represented during ceremonies by a man dressed in a woman’s costume (Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” pp. 139-40).
43
Bogoras, The Chukchee, pp. 79, 84; Diachenko, V. (1994) “The Horse in Yakut Shamanism,” pp. 268-69, in Seaman and Day, Ancient Traditions, pp. 265-71.
44
On handedness/laterality in various animals, see Marino, L., and J. Stowe (1997) “Lateralized Behavior in Two Captive Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus),” Zoo Biology 16:173-77; Marino, L., and J. Stowe (1997) “Lateralized Behavior in a Captive Beluga Whale (Delphinapterus leucas),” Aquatic Mammals 23:101-3; McGrew, W. C., and L. F. Marchant (1996) “On Which Side of the Apes? Ethological Study of Laterality of Hand Use,” in W. C. McGrew, L. E Marchant, and T. Nishida, eds., Great Ape Societies, pp. 255-72 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Clapham, P. J., E. Leimkuhler, B. K. Gray, and D. K. Mattila (1995) “Do Humpback Whales Exhibit Lateralized Behavior?” Animal Behavior 50:73-82; Morgan, M. J. (1992) “On the Evolutionary Origin of Right-Handedness,” Current Biology 2:15-17; MacNeilage, P. F., M. G. Studdert-Kennedy, and B. Lindblom (1987) “Primate Handedness Reconsidered,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:247-303; Rogers, L. J. (1980) “Lateralization in the Avian Brain,” Bird Behavior 2:1-12; Cole, J. (1955) “Paw Preference in Cats Related to Hand Preference in Animals and Man,” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 48:337-45; Friedman, H., and M. Davis (1938) “‘Left Handedness’ in Parrots,” Auk 55:478-80.
45
Beck, B. B. (1980) Animal Tool Behavior: The Use and Manufacture of Tools by Animals, p. 39 (New York: Garland); Koch, T. J. (1975) The Year of the Polar Bear, p. 32 (Indianapolis and New York: Bobbs-Merrill); Bruemmer, F. (1972) Experiences with Arctic Animals, p. 92 (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson); Perry, R. (1966) The World of the Polar Bear, pp. 11, 76 (Seattle: University of Washington Press); Haig-Thomas, D. (1939) Tracks in the Snow, p. 230 (New York: Oxford University Press).
46
Lindesay, J. (1987) “Laterality Shift in Homosexual Men,” Neuropsychologia 25:965 -69; McCormick, C. M., S. F. Witelson, and E. Kinstone (1990) “Left-handedness in Homosexual Men and Women: Neuroendocrine Implications,” Psychoneuroendocrinology 1:69-76; Watson, D. B., and S. Coren (1992) “Left-handedness in Male-to-Female Transsexuals,” JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association) 267:1342; Coren, S. (1992) The Left-Hander Syndrome: The Causes and Consequences of Left-Handedness, pp. 199- 202 (New York: Free Press).
47
For scientific experiments, see Cushing, B. S. (1983) “Responses of Polar Bears to Human Menstrual Odors,” in E. C. Meslow, ed., Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Bear Research and Management (1980), pp. 270-274 (West Glacier, Mont.: International Association for Bear Research and Management); Cushing, B. S. (1980) The Effects of Human Menstrual Odors, Other Scents, and Ringed Seal Vocalizations on the Polar Bear (master’s thesis, University of Montana). For additional discussion of the phenomenon, see March, K. S. (1980) “Deer, Bears, and Blood: A Note on Nonhuman Animal Response to Menstrual Odor,” American Anthropologist 82:125-27. For an alternative evaluation of the scientific evidence and discussion of the way these findings have been misinterpreted to mean that bears are more likely to attack women—and therefore used to justify policies excluding women from certain forestry jobs—see Byrd, C. P. (1988) Of Bears and Women: Investigating the Hypothesis That Menstruation Attracts Bears (master’s thesis, University of Montana).
48
Bears (Cattet 1988).
49
Common Chimpanzee (Egozcue 1972); Rhesus Macaque (Sullivan and Drobeck 1966; Weiss et al. 1973); Savanna Baboon (Bielert 1984; Bielert et al. 1980; Wadsworth et al. 1978); Bowhead Whale and other whales and dolphins (Tarpley et al. 1995); Eastern Gray Kangaroo and other marsupials (Sharman et al. 1990).
50
Another set of terms used by biologists to describe certain types of gender mixing are specific to Deer, where they often refer to the unusual antler configurations of these individuals. Such animals are called velvet-horns in White-tailed Deer, cactus bucks in Mule Deer, perukes in Moose and various European deer, and hummels in Red Deer. See the animal profiles in part 2 for further information.
51
Benirschke, K. (1981) “Hermaphrodites, Freemartins, Mosaics, and Chimaeras in Animals,” in C. R. Austin and R. G. Edwards, eds., Mechanisms of Sex Differentiation in Animals and Man, pp. 421 -63 (London: Academic Press); Reinboth, R., ed., (1975) Intersexuality in the Animal Kingdom (New York: Springer-Verlag); Perry, J. S. (1969) Intersexuality (Proceedings of the Third Symposium of the Society for the Study of Fertility), Journal of Reproduction and Fertility supplement no. 7 (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications); Armstrong, C. N., and A. J. Marshall, eds., (1964) Intersexuality in Vertebrates Including Man (London and New York: Academic Press). For an overview of intersexuality in humans, see Fausto-Stirling, A. (1993) “The Five Sexes: Why Male and Female Are Not Enough,” The Sciences 33(2):20-24.
52
Graves, G. R. (1996) “Comments on a Probable Gynandromorphic Black-throated Blue Warbler,” Wilson Bulletin 108:178-80; Stratton, G. E. (1995) “A Gynandromorphic Schizocosa (Araneae, Lycosidae),” Journal of Arachnology 23:130-33; Patten, M. A. (1993) “A Probable Gynandromorphic Black-throated Blue Warbler,” Wilson Bulletin 105:695-98; Kumerloeve, H. (1987) “Le gynandromorphisme chez les oiseaux—recapitulation des donnees connues,” Alauda 55:1-9; Dexter, R. W. (1985) “Nesting History of a Banded Hermaphroditic Chimney Swift,” North American Bird Bander 10:39; Hannah-Alava, A. (1960) “Genetic Mosaics,” Scientific American 202(5):118-30; Kumerloeve, H. (1954) “On Gynandromorphism in Birds,” Emu 54:71-72.
53
Fredga, K. (1994) “Bizarre Mammalian Sex-Determining Mechanisms,” in R. V. Short and E. Balaban, eds., The Differences Between the Sexes, pp. 419-31 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Ishihara, M. (1994) “Persistence of Abnormal Females That Produce Only Female Progeny with Occasional Recovery to Normal Females in Lepidoptera,” Researches on Population Ecology 36:261- 69.
54
Moles (Jimenez, R., M. Burgos, L. Caballero, and R. Diaz de la Guardia [1988] “Sex Reversal in a Wild Population of Talpa occidentalis [Insectivora, Mammalia],” Genetical Research 52[2]:135-40; McVean, G., and L. D. Hurst [1996] “Genetic Conflicts and the Paradox of Sex
