(2009): 53-60; Ann M. Graybiel, “The Basal Ganglia: Learning New Tricks and Loving It,” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 15 (2005): 638-44; Ann M. Graybiel, “The Basal Ganglia and Chunking of Action Repertoires,” Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 70, nos. 1-2 (1998): 119-36; F. Gregory Ashby and V. Valentin, “Multiple Systems of Perceptual Category Learning: Theory and Cognitive Tests,” in Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science, ed. Henri Cohen and Claire Lefebvre (Oxford: Elsevier Science, 2005); S. N Haber and M. Johnson Gdowski, “The Basal Ganglia,” in The Human Nervous System, 2nd ed., ed. George Paxinos and Jurgen K. Mai (San Diego: Academic Press, 2004), 676-738; T. D. Barnes et al., “Activity of Striatal Neurons Reflects Dynamic Encoding and Recoding of Procedural Memories,” Nature 437 (2005): 1158-61; M. Laubach, “Who’s on First? What’s on Second? The Time Course of Learning in Corticostriatal Systems,” Trends in Neurosciences 28 (2005): 509-11; E. K. Miller and T. J. Buschman, “Bootstrapping Your Brain: How Interactions Between the Frontal Cortex and Basal Ganglia May Produce Organized Actions and Lofty Thoughts,” in Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 2nd ed., ed. Raymond P. Kesner and Joe L. Martinez (Burlington, Vt.: Academic Press, 2007), 339-54; M. G. Packard, “Role of Basal Ganglia in Habit Learning and Memory: Rats, Monkeys, and Humans,” in Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience, ed. Heinz Steiner and Kuei Y. Tseng, 561-69; D. P. Salmon and N. Butters, “Neurobiology of Skill and Habit Learning,” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 5 (1995): 184 -90; D. Shohamy et al., “Role of the Basal Ganglia in Category Learning: How Do Patients with Parkinson’s Disease Learn?” Behavioral Neuroscience 118 (2004): 676-86; M. T. Ullman, “Is Broca’s Area Part of a Basal Ganglia Thalamocortical Circuit?” Cortex 42 (2006): 480-85; N. M. White, “Mnemonic Functions of the Basal Ganglia,” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 7 (1997): 164-69.
[20] The maze was structured Ann M. Graybiel, “Overview at Habits, Rituals, and the Evaluative Brain,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 31 (2008): 359-87; T. D. Barnes et al., “Activity of Striatal Neurons Reflects Dynamic Encoding and Recoding of Procedural Memories,” Nature 437 (2005): 1158-61; Ann M. Graybiel, “Network-Level Neuroplasticity in Cortico- Basal Ganglia Pathways,” Parkinsonism and Related Disorders 10 (2004): 293-96; N. Fujii and Ann M. Graybiel, “Time-Varying Covariance of Neural Activities Recorded in Striatum and Frontal Cortex as Monkeys Perform Sequential-Saccade Tasks,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 (2005): 9032-37.
[21] To see this capacity in action The graphs in this chapter have been simplified to exhibit salient aspects. However, a full description of these studies can be found among Dr. Graybiel’s papers and lectures.
[22] root of how habits form Ann M. Graybiel, “The Basal Ganglia and Chunking of Action Repertoires,” Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 70 (1998): 119-36.
[23] a habit is born For more, see A. David Smith and J. Paul Bolam, “The Neural Network of the Basal Ganglia as Revealed by the Study of Synaptic Connections of Identified Neurones,” Trends in Neurosciences 13 (1990): 259-65; John G. McHaffle et al., “Subcortical Loops Through the Basal Ganglia,” Trends in Neurosciences 28 (2005): 401-7; Ann M. Graybiel, “Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators in the Basal Ganglia,” Trends in Neurosciences 13 (1990): 244-54; J. Yelnik, “Functional Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia,” Movement Disorders 17 (2002): 15-21.
[24] The problem is that your brain For more, see Catherine A. Thorn et al., “Differential Dynamics of Activity Changes in Dorsolateral and Dorsomedial Striatal Loops During Learning,” Neuron 66 (2010): 781-95; Ann M. Graybiel, “The Basal Ganglia: Learning New Tricks and Loving It,” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 15 (2005): 638-44.
[25] In each pairing, one piece For more, see Peter J. Bayley, Jennifer C. Frascino, and Larry R. Squire, “Robust Habit Learning in the Absence of Awareness and Independent of the Medial Temporal Lobe,” Nature 436 (2005): 550-53; J. M. Reed et al., “Learning About Categories That Are Defined by Object-Like Stimuli Despite Impaired Declarative Memory,” Behavioral Neuroscience 133 (1999): 411-19; B. J. Knowlton, J. A. Mangels, and L. R. Squire, “A Neostriatal Habit Learning System in Humans,” Science 273 (1996): 1399-1402.
[26] Squire’s experiments with Eugene It is worth noting that Squire’s work with Pauly is not limited to habits and has also provided insights into subjects such as spatial memory and the effects of priming on the brain. For a more complete discussion of discoveries made possible by Pauly, see Squire’s home page at http://psychiatry.ucsd.edu/faculty/lsquire.html.
[27] The habit was so ingrained For discussion, see Monica R. F. Hilario et al., “Endocannabinoid Signaling Is Critical for Habit Formation,” Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience 1 (2007): 6; Monica R. F. Hilario and Rui M. Costa, “High on Habits,” Frontiers in Neuroscience 2 (2008): 208-17; A. Dickinson, “Appetitive-Aversive Interactions: Superconditioning of Fear by an Appetitive CS,” Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 29 (1977): 71-83; J. Lamarre and P. C. Holland, “Transfer of Inhibition After Serial Feature Negative Discrimination Training,” Learning and Motivation 18 (1987): 319-42; P. C. Holland, “Differential Effects of Reinforcement of an Inhibitory Feature After Serial and Simultaneous Feature Negative Discrimination Training,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 10 (1984): 461-75.
[28] When researchers at the University of North Texas Jennifer L. Harris, Marlene B. Schwartz, and Kelly D. Brownell, “Evaluating Fast Food Nutrition and Marketing to Youth,” Yale Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity, 2010; H. Qin and V. R. Prybutok, “Determinants of Customer-Perceived Service Quality in Fast-Food Restaurants and Their Relationship to Customer Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions,” The Quality Management Journal 15 (2008): 35; H. Qin and V. R. Prybutok, “Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction, and Behavioral Intentions in Fast-Food Restaurants,” International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences 1 (2009): 78. For more on this topic, see K. C. Berridge, “Brain Reward Systems for Food Incentives and Hedonics in Normal Appetite and Eating Disorders,” in Appetite and Body Weight, ed. Tim C. Kirkham and Steven J. Cooper (Burlington, Vt.: Academic Press, 2007), 91-215; K. C. Berridge et al., “The Tempted Brain Eats: Pleasure and Desire Circuits in Obesity and Eating Disorders,” Brain Research 1350 (2010): 43-64; J. M. Dave et al., “Relationship of Attitudes Toward Fast Food and Frequency of Fast-Food Intake in Adults,” Obesity 17 (2009): 1164-70; S. A. French et al., “Fast Food Restaurant Use Among Adolescents: Associations with Nutrient Intake, Food Choices and Behavioral and Psychosocial Variables,” International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 25 (2001): 1823; N. Ressler, “Rewards and Punishments, Goal-Directed Behavior and
