In the Graveyard of Empires: America's War in Afghanistan

electricity to the northern Afghanistan province of Kunduz, although power supplies were expected to halt in October 2003. Iran also supplies electricity to Afghanistan, in some areas directly adjacent to the Afghan-Iranian border in Herat, Farah, and Nimroz Provinces. See, for example, U.S. Department of Energy, Afghanistan Fact Sheet 2004 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 2004); U.S. Department of Energy, Afghanistan Fact Sheet 2006 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 2006).

14. Author interview with Dr. Abdullah Abdullah, September 14, 2007.

15. Andrew S. Natsios, “The Nine Principles of Reconstruction and Development,” Parameters, vol. 35, no. 3, Autumn 2005, pp. 4–20.

16. Ron Synovitz, “Afghanistan: Workers Still Await Security Clearance to Repair Kajaki Dam,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, June 12, 2007.

17. Author interview with Michelle Parker, August 15, 2007. She had previously managed the USAID Jalalabad Field Office, where she served as the USAID representative in Nangarhar and Laghman Provinces and as the development lead in the Jalalabad Provincial Reconstruction Team from 2004 to 2006.

18. Author correspondence with Ambassador Ronald Neumann, October 29, 2008.

19. Author interview with Michelle Parker, August 15, 2007.

20. Author interview with senior official, Canadian International Development Agency, Kandahar, Afghanistan, January 14, 2007.

21. Combined Forces Command—Afghanistan, ANSF Operational Primacy Process Planning Group (Kabul, Afghanistan: Combined Forces Command—Afghanistan, June 2006), slide 16.

22. Combined Forces Command—Afghanistan, Update to LTG Eikenberry: ANSF Operational Primacy Process Planning Group IPR #3 (Kabul, Afghanistan: Combined Forces Command— Afghanistan, July 15, 2006), slide 10.

23. Joint Center for Operational Analysis, Provincial Reconstruction Teams in Afghanistan: An Interagency Assessment (Suffolk, VA: U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Center for Operational Analysis, 2006), p. 12.

24. Author interviews with senior U.S. Defense Department official with knowledge of the assessment, August 21 and October 4, 2007.

25. Denis D. Gray, “Afghan Village ‘On the Fence,’” Washington Times, April 30, 2007, p. 12.

26. United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan, UNAMA Assessment of the Effects of the Musa Qala Agreement (Kabul: United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan, January 2007), p. 3.

27. Author interview with Michael Semple, September 14, 2007.

28. Author interviews with Shahmahmood Miakhel, and August 29 and September 14, 2007.

29. Author interviews with Royal Canadian Mounted Police and U.S. police trainers, Kandahar, Afghanistan, September 18, 2007.

30. Joint Paper by the Government of Afghanistan, UNAMA, CFC—A, ISAF, Canada, Netherlands, UK, and U.S. Governments, Assessment of Factors Contributing to Insecurity in Afghanistan (Kabul: Government of Afghanistan, 2006), p. 3.

31. United Nations, A Review of the Taliban and Fellow Travelers as a Movement: Concept Paper Updating PAG Joint Assessment of June 2006 (Kabul: United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan, August 2007), pp. 5, 8.

32. Afghan Ministry of Defense, The National Military Strategy, 2005 (Kabul: Afghan Ministry of Defense, 2005), p. 3.

33. Statement of Lieutenant General Karl W. Eikenberry, Testimony Before the U.S. House Armed Services Committee, February 13, 2007, p. 5.

34. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2008 (Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2008).

35. Author interview with Doug Wankel, director of the Office of Drug Control, Kabul, Afghanistan, November 23, 2005.

36. Ibid.

37. Jon Lee Anderson, “Letter from Afghanistan: The Taliban’s Opium War,” The New Yorker, July 9, 2007.

38. Interview with Doug Wankel, director of the Office of Drug Control, Kabul, Afghanistan, November 23, 2005.

39. Correspondence with former Afghan Minister of Interior Ali Jalali, September 5, 2006.

40. Coalition Provisional Authority and Interim Ministry of Interior, Talking Points: Drug- Trafficking Trends and Forecast for Iraq, Prepared for Ambassador L. Paul Bremer (Baghdad: Coalition Provisional Authority and Interim Ministry of Interior, July 17, 2003), p. 1.

41. Statement of Karen P. Tandy, Administrator, U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency, Testimony Before the House Armed Services Committee, Washington, DC, June 28, 2006.

42. Author interview with intelligence officer, 82nd Airborne Division, Bagram, Afghanistan, March 7, 2008.

43. Author interview with Doug Wankel, January 11, 2007. Statement of Karen P. Tandy, Administrator, U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency, Testimony Before the House Armed Services Committee, Washington, DC, June 28, 2006.

44. Thomas H. Johnson, “Financing Afghan Terrorism: Thugs, Drugs, and Creative Movement of Money,” in Jeanne K. Giraldo and Harold A. Trinkunas, Terrorism Financing and State Responses: A Comparative Perspective (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), p. 98.

45. Ahmed Rashid, Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), p. 118.

46. Author interview with Ambassador Said Jawad, August 24, 2007.

47. “U.S. Military Links Karzai Brother to Drugs,” ABC World News Tonight, June 22, 2006. Also see, for example, Ron Moreau and Sami Yousafzai, “A Harvest of Treachery,” Newsweek, January 9, 2006, p. 32.

48. James Risen, “Reports Link Karzai’s Brother to Afghanistan Heroin Trade,” New York Times, October 4, 2008, p. A1.

49. Author interview with two U.S. intelligence operatives, March 3, 2009.

50. Anthony Loyd, “Corruption, Bribes and Trafficking: A Cancer That Is Engulfing Afghanistan,” The Times (London), November 24, 2007, p. 55. On other accusations of corruption in the Afghan government, see, for example, Philip Smucker, “Afghan Opium Crop Booms: More People Doing Illicit Trade, Corruption Cited,” Washington Times, March 16, 2007, p. Ai 7.

51. Sakayi, “Hidden Hands for Damaging the Government,” Daily Afghanistan, February 25, 2007. It was reprinted in English by the BBC. See “Afghan Daily Says Government Under Attack from Within,” BBC Monitoring South Asia, February 26, 2007.

52. Author interview with Michelle Parker, August 15, 2007.

53. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan: Opium Survey 2005 (Kabul and Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2005), p. 29.

54. Author interview with Doug Wankel, November 23, 2005; Afghanistan: Opium Survey 2005, p. iii.

55. Afghanistan: Opium Survey 2005, pp. iii-iv.

56. World Bank, Governance Matters 2008: Worldwide Governance Indicators, 1996– 2007 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2008).

57. Author interview with Deputy Minister of Justice Muhammad Qasim Hashimzai, June 26, 2004. Rama Mani, Ending Impunity and Building Justice in Afghanistan (Kabul: Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, 2003), p. 2.

58. Amrullah Saleh, Strategy of Insurgents and Terrorists in Afghanistan (Kabul, Afghanistan: National Directorate of Security, 2006), p. 15.