Good Calories, Bad Calories

Ruvkun reported: Kimura et al. 1997; interview, Gary Ruvkun. Long-lived fruit-fly mutants: Clancy et al. 2001. See also Kenyon 2001.

Gene knockout experiments in mice: Holzenberger et al. 2003. Kahn’s research: Bluher et al. 2003; interview, C. Ronald Kahn.

“When food becomes limiting…”: Kenyon 2001:168.

Kenyon began a series of experiments: Interview, Cynthia Kenyon.

“Could a low-carb…”: Kenyon’s slide from her conference presentation. I’m grateful to Professor Kenyon for providing the slides.

Kenyon’s restriction of carbohydrate consumption: Interview, Cynthia Kenyon.

“…attendant therapeutic implications…”: Farris et al. 2004:1432. “dream of 60 million…”: Joslin Diabetes Center 2003. Diabetologists take the same tack: See, for instance, LeRoith 2004 (“normalize” and “intensive…”).

NCEP merges both tacks: NCEP 2002 (“atherogenic diet,” II-20; “pharmaceutical modification…,” II-26).

“Weight sits like a spider…”: Willett 2001:35. “Excess weight…”: Stamler 1962:57.

PART THREE: OBESITY AND THE REGULATION OF WEIGHT

Epigraphs. “How may the medical…”: Stunkard and McClaren-Hume 1959. “To cultivate the faculty…”: Tanner 1869a:1.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN:

THE MYTHOLOGY OF OBESITY

Epigraph. “A colleague once defined…”: Cohen 1989:viii.

“To have our first idea…”: Bernard 1957:32–33.

“overweight and obesity result…”: USDHHS 2001:1.

“Most studies comparing…”: NRC 1989:583.

Percentage of obese Americans: NCHS 2005:275 (table 73).

Proportion consistent throughout society: Ogden et al. 2003. Interview, Katherine Flegal. Children not exempt: NCHS 2005:9, 279 (table 74). Footnote. Friedman 2003; interviews, Jeffrey Friedman and Katherine Flegal.

“toxic environment…”: Quoted on Brownell’s Yale University faculty information Web page (http://www.yale.edu/psychology/FacInfo/Brownell.htm).

“Cheeseburgers and french fries…”: Brownell and Horgen 2004:8. “improved prosperity…”: Nestle 2003.

“risen three-fold” and “As incomes rise…”: WHO 2004.

CDC, “attributable primarily…”: Wright et al. 2004.

USDA on increases in nutrient intake: Gerrior and Bente 2001: table 1. Chart. Wright, et al. 2004. Footnote. USDA Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion 1998.

“It appears that efforts…”: Heini and Weinsier 1997.

Lack of CDC evidence on physical activity: Interview, William Dietz, director of CDC Division of Nutrition and Physical Activity. No less active at end of 1990s: CDC 2001. $200 million a year: Lichtenstein 1972. 2005 numbers: International Health, Racquet and Sportsclub Association 2005. Footnote. Interview, Mike May, spokesman for the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association.

“exercise explosion…”: Gilmore 1977. “new fitness revolution…”: Cohn 1980.

Obesity prevalent among the poorest: Bray 1998. NHANES studies confirmed: NCHS 2005:275 (table 73). Stunkard reported: Goldblatt et al. 1965. See also Stunkard 1976a.

Obesity blamed on high-fructose corn syrup: Critser 2003:138–40; Bray et al. 2004; Pollan 2006:100–108.

“As the typical American diet…” and “If the Pima Indians could…”: NIDDK 1995:19.

Russell noted: Russell 1975 (“exhibit a degree…,” 66; Fat Louisa, 67).

“Especially well-nourished…”: Hrdlika 1908:156–57.

Pima had lived as hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists: Aldritch 1966; Audubon 1906; Bartlett 1965; Castetter and Bell 1942; Cook and Whittemore 1893; Cunningham 1996; Curtain 1949; Davis 1962; Dobyns 1978; Dobyns 1989; Eccleston 1950; Ezell 1961; Griffin 1943 (“sprightly,” “fine health,” and “the greatest abudance…,” 34); Harris 1960; Hrdlika 1906; Hrdlika 1908; Jones 1967; Rea 1983; Reid 1858; Russell 1975 (“unidentified worms,” 81; also mentioned in Audubon 1906:150); Smith et al. 1994; Spicer 1962; Spier 1978; Webb 1992.

“by way of Tucson…”: Russell 1975:30.

“the years of famine”: Smith et al. 1994:409. “entirely absorbed…”: Spicer 1962:148–50.

“Certain articles…”: Russell 1975:66. Hrdlika suggested: Hrdlika 1908:156–57.

Women worked as pack animals: Russell 1975:66.

“everything obtainable…”: Hrdlika 1906. “sugar, coffee and canned…”: Dobyns 1989:61.

Sioux diet with government rations: Jackson 1994.

According to Kraus: Kraus 1954. Hesse noted: Hesse 1959.