Good Calories, Bad Calories

Over the next twenty years: Price et al. 1993. “large quantities of refined…,” “started to carry…,” and “Soda pop…”: Justice 1994:116–17.

“The only question…” Select Committee 1973a:256–57. “to some extent a result…” and “many of the poorer individuals…”: Dobyns 1989: 100–101.

Obesity in the South Dakoa Sioux: Stene and Roberts 1928. Arizona Apaches: Clifford 1963. North Carolina Cherokees: Stein et al. 1965. Oklahoma tribes: West 1981 (“Men are very fat…,” 132).240 “An overwhelming majority…”: Meriam et al. 1928. University of Chicago report: Stene and Roberts 1928.

“…visit to Czechoslovakia…”: Osancova 1975.

Obesity in African Americans in Charleston: Grant and Groom 1959. In Chile: Arteaga 1974. In Trinidad: McCarthy 1966.

In Jamaica: Richards and de Casseres 1974.

In Rarotonga: Prior 1971. Among Zulus: Slome et al. 1960. Bantu “pensioners”: Walker 1964. “Although dietary habits…”: Adadevoh 1974. For other studies of obesity in impoverished populations, see Reichley et al. 1987; Seftel et al. 1965; Haddock 1969; Johnson 1970; Tulloch 1962:72–75.

“It is difficult to explain…”: Richards and de Casseres 1974.

“different only in degree…”: Gladwell 1998.

“Such genes would be advantageous…”: Diamond 2003. “exquisitely efficient…” and “Your genes match nicely…”: Brownell and Horgen 2003:6. “are trying to find these genes…”: Gladwell 1998.

“thrifty mechanisms to defend…”: Ravussin 2005.

Neel initially proposed: Neel 1962.

Sickle-cell anemia and malaria: Rucknagel and Neel 1961.

“might have, during a period…”: Neel 1962.

“If the considerable frequency…”: Ibid.

“a relatively recent phenomenon”: Neel 1982. Russell’s disease list: Russell 1975:268. Hrdlika’s: Hrdlika 1908:182–83. Joslin concluded: Joslin 1940. The Bureau of Indian Affairs studies: Cohen 1954; Parks and Waskow 1961.

Glucose intolerance in Yanomamo: Spielman et al. 1982. “The high frequency…”: Neel 1999.

“overindulge in…”: Neel 1982.

“The data on which…”: Neel 1989. “composition of the diet…”: Neel 1999.

“To me, it would be…”: Hirsch 1978:3.

“exquisitely efficient…”: Brownell and Horgen 2003:5–6. “conditions of unpredictably alternating…”: Diamond 2003.

“paradise for hunting…”: Eaton et al. 1988:29. “conspicuously well-nourished…:” Cohen 1989:96. Footnote. Duncan and Burns 1998:89–90,150.

The !Kung study: Lee and DeVore 1968. Lee noted: Lee 1968 (“the third year…,” “some relatively abundant…,” and “have to walk…,” 39).

“levels of decay…”: Cohen 1989:86. When hunting failed: Livingstone 2001: 32–33. Resiliency of hunting and gathering: See, for instance, Lee and Devore 1968. Studies of human remains: Cohen 1989:105–42; Cohen 1987:261–85. “the worst mistake…”: Diamond 1987.

“a uniquely low occurrence…”: Diamond 2003.

Average 150-pound man: Wertheimer 1965. “Survival of the species…”: Cahill and Renold 1965.

“facile and unlikely” and “major objection…”: Rothwell and Stock 1981: 335–36.

“When this animal…”: Zimmet et al. 2001.

Schmidt-Nielsen’s sand-rat experiments: Schmidt-Nielsen et al. 1964.

Monkeys in captivity: Hamilton and Brobeck 1965. Perhaps 60 percent: Bodkin et al. 1993; Jen et al. 1985. “This is on the kind…”: Interview, Barbara Hansen. Footnote. Strasser 1968.

Mammalian species that fatten regularly: Young 1976 is a good review.

“opening a can of Crisco…”: Interview, Irving Zucker.

Genetically pre-programmed: Mrosovsky 1976; Mrosovsky 1985 (“It is very hard to prevent…”). Lipectomy studies: Mauer et al. 2001.

Regulation of type and location of fat: See Young 1976.

Select out rather than in: See, for instance, Sims 1976.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN:

HUNGER

Epigraph. “Khrushchev, too, looks…”: Liebling 2004:485.

Benedict’s semi-starvation studies: Benedict et al. 1919 (fourteen to twenty-one hundred calories, 688– 89).

His subjects lost the weight: Benedict et al. 1919 (“a continuous gnawing…,” 360; “almost impossible to keep warm…,” 259; reduced energy expenditure, 694–95; blood pressure, 371; pulse rate, 383; anemia, 364–65; concentration, 680; “a decrease in sexual interest…,” 640; “the whole picture…,” 698).