40. Herbert York, Making Weapons, Talking Peace: A Physicist’s Odyssey from Hiroshima to Geneva (Basic Books, 1987), 33.
41. Peat (1997), 84; San Francisco field report, May 23, 1952, Bohm file, FBI.
42. Weinberg FBI file, Aug. 19, 1949, box 1, AEC/JRO; U.S. Congress, HUAC, Report on Atomic Espionage (Nelson-Weinberg and Hiskey-Adams Cases). 81st Congress, 2nd sess., Sept. 29, 1949, 8–9.
43. California Legislature, “Third Report: Un-American Activities in California, 1947” (Sacramento, Calif., 1947) (Tenney hearings, 1947), 212.
44. Beyond not wanting to tip its hand, the government had no clearly admissible evidence to use against Weinberg. Lansdale to Hoover, Aug. 2, 1943, Weinberg folder, CINRAD file, FBI. Since Weinberg was the only part-time scientist at the lab, the army issued an edict firing all part-time workers. Lyall Johnson interview (1993).
45. L. Johnson to Fidler, Sept. 20, 1943, and Friedman to Oppenheimer, Sept. 25, 1943, no. 8, box 100, MED/NARA.
46. Friedman to Oppenheimer, Sept. 25, 1943, no. 8, box 100, MED/NARA.
47. ITMOJRO, 119; Peat (1997), 5.
48. Bohm would later be assigned to work with the Rad Lab’s British contingent on theoretical calculations related to the Calutrons. Peat (1997), 64–65.
49. Lansdale to Groves, Aug. 2, 1943, no. 8, box 100, MED/NARA.
50. Army MID report on Lomanitz, July 15, 1943, Weinberg folder, CINRAD file, FBI. Lansdale arranged for Lomanitz to be assigned to a signals unit of the Forty-fourth Infantry Division, which was training in Washington State.
51. Lansdale to Groves, July 19, 1943, and Lansdale to Groves, July 31, 1943, no. 8, box 100, MED/NARA.
52. Goodchild (1980), 91; Stern (1969), 52.
53. Murray to “Officer in Charge,” Sept. 22, 1943, box 1, AEC/JRO.
54. Groves may have wanted to draft Lomanitz so that Rossi could later be court-martialed. When the general raised the idea with aide Joseph Volpe, however, Volpe, a lawyer, pointed out that Lomanitz could call his own counsel to challenge the charges. Groves dropped the idea. Joseph Volpe, Mar. 9, 2001, personal communication.
55. Friedman to Oppenheimer, Sept. 25, 1943, no. 8, box 100, MED/NARA.
56. Murray to “Officer in Charge,” Sept. 22, 1943, box 1, AEC/JRO.
57. When Lomanitz telephoned Los Alamos from his home in Oklahoma, where he had gone on furlough before basic training, Oppie refused to take the call. Oppenheimer to Lansdale, Sept. 29, 1943, no. 8, box 100, MED/NARA.
58. ITMOJRO, 815.
59. Ibid., 816.
60. Ibid., 186, 277–78.
61. Oppenheimer-Lansdale interview: Ibid., 871–86.
62. Summary report, Apr. 18, 1952, 19, Robert Oppenheimer file, FBI/JRO.
63. Among those Lansdale suspected of being the contacts were Robert and Charlotte Serber and Phillip Morrison, another of Oppie’s grad students. Morrison interview (2000).
64. A list of candidates that Jim Murray sent Pash included not only Weinberg but Birge. Murray to Pash, Nov. 22, 1943, box 1, AEC/JRO.
65. A few days before going overseas, Pash sent Lansdale a list of nine individuals he considered likely candidates for Eltenton’s go-between; the list was drawn from the physics and chemistry faculty at Berkeley.
66. Alsos: Groves (1962), 191–92.
67. Minutes of Nov. 1943 Coordinating Committee, book 3, box 27, LBL; Jones (1985), 135.
68. Transcript of Nov. 10, 1943, telephone conversation, book 1, box 1, Rad Lab records.
69. Transcript of Nov. 25, 1943, telephone conversation, book 1, box 1, Rad Lab records; minutes of Nov. 1943 Coordinating Committee, book 3, box 27, LBL.
70. Transcript of Nov. 26, 1943, telephone conversation, book 1, box 1, Rad Lab records.
71. Transcripts of Dec. 1943 telephone conversations, book 1, box 1, Rad Lab records.
72. Childs (1968), 348–49.
73. Groves arrived at Y-12 on Dec. 14 to find things little improved. Transcript of Dec. 28, 1943, telephone conversations, book 1, box 1, Rad Lab records; Jones (1985), 136.
74. Minutes of Dec. 1943 Coordinating Committee, book 3, box 27, LBL; Jones (1985), 136–38.
75. Interview with Duane Sewell, July 30, 1993, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory archives, Livermore, Calif. (LLNL).
76. Transcript of Dec. 31, 1943, telephone conversation, book 1, box 1, Rad Lab records; Lawrence to Conklin, Jan. 5, 1944, book 3, box 27, LBL.
77. This account is taken from FBI interviews done in late 1953 and early 1954 with Groves, Lansdale, and William Consodine. Frank Oppenheimer, also interviewed at this time, denied ever being approached by Chevalier. Interviews, box 1, AEC/JRO. In spring 1946, Chevalier would tell the FBI that he had approached only Oppie, while the two men were mixing drinks in the kitchen of the Eagle Hill home, at a dinner party shortly before Oppenheimer and his family moved to Los Alamos. By that time, however, the two had gotten together socially and would have been able to coordinate their stories, as Chevalier himself acknowledged. Chevalier (1965), 68–69.
78. Consodine reasoned, as he later told the FBI, that Oppie was “more inclined to protect a blood relative than a friend.” Newark field report, Jan. 5, 1954, box 1, AEC/JRO.
79. Joseph Volpe, Mar. 9, 2001, personal communication.
80. It was not the first time that Groves sought an extralegal solution to a security problem in the project. Earlier in the war, Groves had wanted to intern physicist Leo Szilard for the duration as an enemy alien. Stimson to Attorney General, Oct. 1943, no. 61, Harrison-Bundy file, MED/NARA; Lanouette (1992), 240; Stern (1969), 70.
81. The available record does not indicate whether Groves knew of and tacitly approved this plan, or Consodine and Lansdale arrived at it independently.
82. Pash was already in Europe and did not learn that Oppenheimer had identified Chevalier as the go-between until much later. ITMOJRO, 817, 153.
83. Lansdale, however, did notify Hoover in writing on Dec. 13 that Oppenheimer had identified the professor as Chevalier. Lansdale to Hoover, USSR file, no. 47C, Army/NARA.
84. There is no indication in Nichols’s memoir, published in 1987, that Groves told his second-in-command what Oppenheimer had said about Frank’s role. Lansdale confirmed his late-night visit to Tamm and Whitson during the 1954 Oppenheimer hearings and, previously, in a private letter to Groves. ITMOJRO, 262–63; Lansdale to Groves, Dec. 16, 1953, box 5, RG 200 (Groves/NARA), National Archives.
85. Author interview with Duane Sewell, Livermore, Calif., July 30, 1993; transcript of Jan. 1, 1944,
