86. Seaborg (1992), vol. 4, 117.
87. One particularly enterprising worker used a screwdriver to adjust the gauge. Sewell interview (1993).
88. Kamen soon made the unpleasant discovery that chemical processes that worked in the lab failed to give the same results when tried on an industrial scale. Transcript of Jan. 8, 1944, telephone conversation, book 2, box 1, Rad Lab records.
89. Jones (1985), 144. Cyclotroneers made a distinction between water-soluble “gunk” and insoluble “crud,” which had to be laboriously scraped from the machine. Lofgren interview (1998).
90. Transcript of Jan. 22, 1944, telephone conversation, book 2, box 1, Rad Lab records.
91. Transcript of Jan. 18, 1944, telephone conversation, book 2, box 1, Rad Lab records; Dobbs to “Officer in Charge,” Aug. 31, 1943, and attachments, no. 8, box 100, MED; army MID report on Fox, Sept. 13, 1943, box 99, AEC/JRO.
92. Hewlett and Anderson (1990), 164.
93. Brown and MacDonald (1977), 170–71.
94. Segrè (1993), 186–95.
95. Alvarez (1987), 130–35; Badash et al. (1985), 55.
96. Badash et al. (1985), 16–18.
97. R. Oppenheimer to Groves, Mar. 25, 1944, no. 4, pt. 2, series 1, MED/NARA.
98. Oppenheimer to Groves, Jan. 1, 1944, “Design and Testing Bomb” file, Army/NARA.
99. Hoddeson et al. (1993), 137, 181; Hawkins (1983), 118; J. Askin, R. Ehrlich, R. P. Feynman, Jan. 31, 1944, “First Report on the Hydride,” LAMS-45, LANL.
100. Hoddeson et al. (1993), 137, 181.
101. Implosion crisis: Ibid., 1–3; Hewlett and Anderson (1990), 252–53; Rhodes (1986), 548.
102. Hewlett and Anderson (1990), 311; Hoddeson et al. (1993), 245–48.
103. “Fast” implosion: Hoddeson et al. (1993), 130, 159–60; Rhodes (1986), 545.
104. Teller to Mayer, n.d. (early 1944), box 3, Mayer papers.
105. Hoddeson et al. (1993), 203; Fitzpatrick (1998), 108.
106. Opacity: Serber (1995), xxi; Teller to Urey, May 18, 1944, LANL.
107. Teller (2001), 127; Teller to Mayer, n.d. (May–June 1944), box 3, Mayer papers.
108. Teller interview (1993).
109. Hoddeson et al. (1993), 204; Fitzpatrick (1998), 110; Rhodes (1986), 546; Hewlett and Anderson (1990), 240.
110. Teller (2001), 180, 220; R. Oppenheimer to Groves, Mar. 25, 1944, no. 4, pt. 2, series 1, MED/NARA.
111. Fitzpatrick (1998), 112; Hoddeson et al. (1993), 157–60; Teller (2001), 177.
112. Fuchs was subsequently one of the authors of a top-secret, five-volume series of reports on implosion theory. Teller told his biographers that he had no memory of refusing Bethe’s requests, but acknowledged that he balked at doing the calculations. Rhodes (1986), 545–46; Hoddeson et al. (1993), 162; Blumberg and Owens (1976), 131.
113. Williams (1987), 189.
114. New York to Moscow, Feb. 9, 1944, Venona decrypts. Fuchs-Gold meeting: Rhodes (1995), 107–8; Albright and Kunstel (1997), 78.
115. Independent of Rest, the Russians had other sources of information on Oak Ridge and Los Alamos. Just two days after Anton forwarded Fuchs’s information, Fitin received another encrypted cable from New York, relaying a report by Vogel that dealt with construction of the facility at Oak Ridge to make heavy water. New York to Moscow, Feb 11, 1944, Venona decrypts. Eleven days later, Kurchatov wrote an assessment of new “materials” derived from espionage that may have included Vogel’s information, since it dealt with heavy-water production in the United States.
116. One of the Soviets’ sources in England was Hola, a secretary in Britain’s Non-Ferrous Metals Association, who was later identified as Melita Norwood. Another British spy, Eric, remains unidentified as of this writing. Andrew and Mitrokhin (1999), 115–16; Weinstein and Vassiliev (1999), 181–83.
117. Kurchatov to Pervukhin, July 3, 1943, reprinted in Sudoplatov, et al. (1994), 455.
118. New York to Moscow, Aug. 12, 1943, Venona decrypts. The name of the “progressive professor”—redacted by the censors when they declassified Venona—was reportedly “Lawrence.” If so, Moliere’s political intuition was no better than his grasp of California geography. Mikhailov sent his cable the same day that Ernest was formally inducted into the Soviet Academy of Sciences. See chapter 5. The author thanks Nigel West for these insights.
119. Late in 1941, Pinsky left FAECT to become research director for the CIO in California. Pinsky interview (1997).
120. San Francisco to Moscow, Mar. 9, 1944; San Francisco to Moscow, Dec. 11, 1943, Venona decrypts.
121. San Francisco to Moscow, Nov. 2, 1943, Venona decrypts.
122. Benson, Venona Historical Monographs, nos. 4 and 5.
123. San Francisco to Moscow, Feb. 8, 1944, and Jan. 14, 1944, Venona decrypts.
124. Strong: Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong (Random House, 1983), 206–8; Haynes and Klehr (1999), 367; Philip Scheidermayer, Jan. 14, 1998, personal communication.
125. Miller: San Francisco to Moscow, Nov. 1, 1943, Venona decrypts; San Francisco field reports, Feb. 25, 1944, May 31, 1944, and Apr. 22, 1947, COMRAP file, FBI; Haynes and Klehr (1999), 358.
126. San Francisco to Moscow, Nov. 1, 1943, and June 22, 1944, Venona decrypts. Corday was Marat’s assassin in the French Revolution; she was guillotined for the murder.
127. The previous day, Pieper had put Chevalier back on the FBI’s watch list. Pieper to Hoover, Dec. 17, 1943, sec. 1, Chevalier file, and “Haakon Chevalier,” n.d., sec. 30, COMRAP file, FBI.
128. Chevalier to Oppenheimer, n.d., and Dec. 3, 1943, Chevalier folder, JRO.
129. “Haakon Chevalier,” n.d., sec. 30, COMRAP file, FBI.
130. Summary report, Apr. 22, 1947, 37–38, COMRAP file, FBI.
131. Summary report, Dec. 15, 1944, 222–24, COMRAP file, FBI.
132. The following day, Bransten and Chevalier went to Washington, D.C., where they met with Silvermaster. Summary report, Apr. 22, 1947, 37–38, COMRAP file, and summary report, Mar. 6, 1946, CINRAD file, FBI.
7: Break, Blow, Burn
1. Kamen (1986), 164–65.
2. Lansdale to Osborne, July 17, 1944, Tolman papers, OSRD/NARA; Lyall Johnson interview (1996).
3. San Francisco field report, May 7, 1956, John Hundale Lawrence file, no. 77–32400, FBI.
4. Kamen incident: U.S. Congress, Excerpts from Hearings Regarding Investigation of Communist Activities in Connection with the Atom Bomb, (1948 HUAC hearings), Sept. 9, 14, and 16, 1948 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1948), 11–49; Sudoplatov et al. (1994), 214, 298; Weinstein and Vassiliev (1999), 334.
5. Lyall Johnson interview (1996).
6. Fred “Dusty” Rhodes, Apr. 12, 2001, personal communication.
7. Philip Scheidermayer, May 8, 1998, personal communication.
8. “Summary: Russian Situation,” n.d., “Recently Declassified Extracts,” MED/NARA;
